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December 10, 1997, Vol 278, No. 22 >
ARTICLE | December 10, 1997

Autoimmune Endocrine Disease FREE

James R. Baker, Jr, MD
JAMA. 1997;278(22):1931-1937. doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550220137018
Text Size: A A A
Published online
Article
References

Autoimmune endocrine diseases are serious disorders that utilize immense health care resources and cause tremendous disability. They include type 1 diabetes mellitus, thyroiditis, Graves disease, Addison disease, and polyglandular syndromes. Analysis of the basis of autoimmune diseases has been aided by the application of new knowledge in immunologic physiology. Recent investigations using these techniques have revealed complicated disorders that have varied pathogenesis and complex genetic predispositions. While the mainstay of treatment for these diverse diseases remains the replacement of hormones produced by the damaged endocrine organ, investigations into the pathogenesis of these disorders provide hope for the development of specific therapeutic measures to block their pathologic basis.

REFERENCES

1 +
Gerstein HC, Vander Meulen J.  The relationship between cow's milk exposure and type 1 diabetes . Diabet Med . 1996;;13:23-29.
2 +
Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Freire MB.  Epidemiology of late diabetic complications: a basis for the development and evaluation of preventive programs . Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am . 1996;;25:217-242.
3 +
Skyler JS.  Diabetic complications: the importance of glucose control . Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am . 1996;;25:243-54.
4 +
Wilson K, Eisenbarth GS.  Immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy of type 1 diabetes . Annu Rev Med . 1990;;41:497-508.
5 +
de Leiva A.  Frontiers of clinical research in type 1 diabetes . Horm Res . 1996;;45:32-35.
6 +
Foulis AK.  The pathology of the endocrine pancreas in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus . APMIS . 1996;;104:161-167.
7 +
Baekkeskov S, Aanstoot H-J, Christgau S, et al.  Identification of the 64K autoantigen in insulin-dependent diabetes as the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase . Nature . 1990;;347:151-156.
8 +
Ellis TM, Atkinson MA.  The clinical significance of an autoimmune response against glutamic acid decarboxylase . Nat Med . 1996;;2:148-53.
9 +
Verge CF, Eisenbarth GS.  Strategies for preventing type 1 diabetes mellitus . West J Med . 1996;;164:249-55.
10 +
Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, et al.  Prediction of type 1 diabetes in first-degree relatives using a combination of insulin, GAD, and ICA512bdc/IA-2 autoantibodies . Diabetes . 1996;;45:926-33.
11 +
Riley WJ, Maclaren NK, Krischer J, et al.  A prospective study of the development of diabetes in relatives of patients with insulin dependent diabetes . N Engl J Med . 1990;;323:1167-72.
12 +
Undlien DE, Friede T, Rammensee HG, et al.  HLA-encoded genetic predisposition in IDDM: DR4 subtypes may be associated with different degrees of protection . Diabetes . 1997;;46:143-149.
13 +
Todd JA, Bell JI, McDevitt HO.  HLA-DQβgene contributes to susceptibility and resistance to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Nature . 1987;;329:599-604.
14 +
Baisch JM, Weeks T, Giles R, Hoover M, Stastny P, Capra JD.  Analysis of HLA-DQ genotypes and susceptibility in insulin-dependent diabetes melitus . N Engl J Med . 1990;;322:1836-1841.
15 +
Parham P.  A diversity of diabetes . Nature . 1990;;345:662-664.
16 +
Nistico L, Buzzetti R, Pritchard LE, et al.  The CTLA-4 gene region of chromosome 2q33 is linked to, and associated with, type 1 diabetes: Belgian Diabetes Registry . Hum Mol Genet . 1996;;5:1075-1080.
17 +
Owerbach D, Gabbay KH.  The search for IDDM susceptibility genes: the next generation . Diabetes . 1996;;45:544-551.
18 +
Kurrer MO, Pakala SV, Hanson HL, Katz JD.  Beta cell apoptosis in T cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1997;;94:213-218.
19 +
Merriman TR, Todd JA.  Genetics of insulin-dependent diabetes: nonmajor histocompatibility genes . Horm Metab Res . 1996;;28:289-293.
20 +
Falorni A, Ackefors M, Carlberg C, et al.  Diagnostic sensitivity of immunodominant epitopes of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) autoantibodies in childhood IDDM . Diabetologia . 1996;;39:1091-1098.
21 +
Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, et al.  Number of autoantibodies (against insulin, GAD or ICA512/IA2) rather than particular autoantibody specificities determines risk of type 1 diabetes . J Autoimmun . 1996;;9:379-383.
22 +
Worrall G.  Results of the DCCT trial: implications for managing our patients with diabetes . Can Fam Physician . 1994;;40:1955-1965.
23 +
Cook DL.  The beta-cell response to oral hypoglycemic agents . Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 1995;;28 ( (suppl) ):S81-S89.
24 +
Larsen JL, Stratta RJ.  Pancreas transplantation: a treatment option for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Diabetes Metab . 1996;;22:139-146.
25 +
Tian J, Atkinson MA, Clare-Salzler M, et al.  Nasal administration of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD65) peptides induces TH2 responses and prevents murine insulin-dependent diabetes . J Exp Med . 1996;;183:1561-1567.
26 +
Schatz DA, Rogers DG, Brouhard BH.  Prevention of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: an overview of three trials . Cleve Clin J Med . 1996;;63:270-274.
27 +
Blanas E, Carbone FR, Allison J, Miller JF, Heath WR.  Induction of autoimmune diabetes by oral administration of autoantigen . Science . 1996;;274:1707-1709.
28 +
McFarland HF.  Complexities in the treatment of autoimmune disease . Science . 1996;;274:2037-2038.
29 +
Wilson K, Eisenbarth GS.  Immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy of type 1 diabetes . Annu Rev Med . 1990;;41:497-508.
30 +
Tian J, Clare-Salzler M, Herschenfeld A, et al.  Modulating autoimmune responses to GAD inhibits disease progression and prolongs islet graft survival in diabetes-prone mice . Nat Med . 1996;;2:1348-1353.
31 +
Savage MO, Dunger DB.  Recombinant IGF-I therapy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Diabetes Metab . 1996;;22:257-260.
32 +
Kloos RT, Baker JR Jr.  Thyroiditis . In: Robert ER, ed. Conn's Current Therapy . Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 1996;:634-641.
33 +
Weetman AP, McGregor AM.  Autoimmune thyroid disease . Endocr Rev . 1984;;5:309-337.
34 +
Baker JR Jr.  Immunogenetics, the HLA system and endocrine disease . In: Becker KL, ed. The Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism . Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Raven; 1990;:1401-1404.
35 +
Kawai H, Mitsui T, Yokoi K, et al.  Evidence of HTLV-I in thyroid tissue in an HTLV-I carrier with Hashimoto thyroiditis . J Mol Med . 1996;;74:275-278.
36 +
Ajjan RA, Watson PF, McIntosh RS, Weetman AP.  Intrathyroidal cytokine gene expression in Hashimoto thyroiditis . Clin Exp Immunol . 1996;;105:523-528.
37 +
McMurray RW, Tang H, Braley-Mullen H.  The role of alpha 4 integrin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in murine experimental autoimmune thyroiditis . Autoimmunity . 1996;;23:9-23.
38 +
Chazenbalk GD, Portolano S, Russo D, Hutchison JS, Rapoport B, McLachlan S.  Human organspecific autoimmune disease: molecular cloning and expression of an autoantibody gene repertoire for a major autoantigen reveals an antigenic immunodominant region and restricted immunoglobulin gene usage in the target organ . J Clin Invest . 1993;;92:62-74.
39 +
Heufelder AE, Wenzel BE, Scriba PC.  Antigen receptor variable region repertoires expressed by T cells infiltrating thyroid, retroorbital, and pretibial tissue in Graves disease . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:3733-3739.
40 +
Roitt IM, Cooke A.  The role of autoantigen in autoimmunity . Immunol Lett . 1987;;16:259-263.
41 +
McLachlan SM, Rapoport B.  The molecular biology of thyroid peroxidase: cloning, expression and role as autoantigen in autoimmune thyroid disease . Endocr Rev . 1992;;13:192-206.
42 +
McLachlan SM, Rapoport B.  Genetic and epitopic analysis of thyroid peroxidase (TPO) autoantibodies: markers of the human thyroid autoimmune response . Clin Exp Immunol . 1995;;101:200-206.
43 +
Arscott PL, Koenig RL, Kaplan MM, Glick GD, Baker JR Jr.  Unique autoantibody epitopes in an imunodominant region of thyroid peroxidase . J Biol Chem . 1996;;271:4966-4973.
44 +
Libert F, Ludgate M, Vassart G.  Thyroperoxidase, but not the thyrotropin receptor, contains sequential epitopes recognized by autoantibodies in recombinant peptides expressed in the pUEX vector . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1991;;73:857-860.
45 +
Endo T, Kogai T, Nakazato M, Saito T, Kaneshige M, Onaya T.  Autoantibody against Na+/ I- symporter in the sera of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease . Biochem Biophys Res Commun . 1996;;224:92-95.
46 +
Kawakami A.  Thyroid-stimulating hormone inhibits Fas antigen mediated apoptosis of human thyrocytes in vitro . Endocrinology . 1996;;137:3163-3169.
47 +
Giordano C.  Potential involvement of Fas and its ligand in the pathogenesis of Hashimoto thyroiditis . Science . 1997;;275:960-963.
48 +
Marcocci C, Golia F, Bruno-Bossio G, Vignali E, Pinchera A.  Carefully monitored levothyroxine suppressive therapy is not associated with bone loss in premenopausal women . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1994;;78:818-823.
49 +
Feldmann M, Dayan C, Rapoport B, Londei M.  T cell activation and antigen presentation in human thyroid autoimmunity . J Autoimmun . 1992;;5( (suppl A) ):115-121.
50 +
Akamizu T, Kohn LD, Mori T.  Molecular studies on thyrotropin receptor and anti-thyrotropin receptor antibodies . Endocr J . 1995;;42:617-627.
51 +
Radosavljevic VR, Jankovic SM, Marinkovic JM.  Stressful life events in the pathogenesis of Graves disease . Eur J Endocrinol . 1996;;134:699-701.
52 +
Parmentier M, Libert F, Maenhaut C, et al.  Molecular cloning of the thyrotropin receptor . Science . 1989;;246:1620-1622.
53 +
Rapoport B, McLachlan SM, Kakinuma A, Chazenbalk GD.  Critical relationship between autoantibody recognition and thyrotropin receptor maturation as reflected in the acquisition of complex carbohydrate . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:2525-2533.
54 +
Vlase H, Matsuoka N, Graves PN, Magnusson RP, Davies TF.  Folding-dependent binding of thyrotropin and thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies to the murine thyrotropin receptor ectodomain . Endocrinology . 1997;;138:1658-1666.
55 +
Barlow AB, Wheatcroft N, Watson P, Weetman AP.  Association of HLA-DQA1*0501 with Graves disease in English Caucasian men and women . Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1996;;44:73-77.
56 +
Sridama V, Hara Y, Fauchet R, DeGroot LJ.  HLA immunogenetic heterogeneity in black American patients with Graves disease . Arch Intern Med . 1987;;147:229-231.
57 +
Donner H, Rau H, Walfish PG, et al.  CTLA4 alanine-17 confers genetic susceptibility to Graves disease and to type 1 diabetes mellitus . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1997;;82:143-146.
58 +
Wagle NM, Dallas JS, Seetharamaiah GS, et al.  Induction of hyperthyroxinemia in BALB/C but not in several other strains of mice . Autoimmunity . 1994;;18:103-112.
59 +
Shimojo N, Kohno Y, Yamaguchi K, et al.  Induction of Graves-like disease in mice by immunization with fibroblasts transfected with the thyrotropin receptor and a class 2 molecule . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1996;;93:11074-11079.
60 +
Heufelder AE, Dutton CM, Sarkar G, Donovan KA, Bahn RS.  Detection of thyrotropin receptor RNA in cultured fibroblasts from patients with Graves ophthalmopathy and pretibial dermopathy . Thyroid . 1993;;3:297-300.
61 +
Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Kadrmas EF, et al.  The treatment of Graves ophthalmopathy in an incidence cohort . Am J Ophthalmol . 1996;;121:200-206.
62 +
Chen S, Sawicka J, Betterle C, et al.  Autoantibodies to steroidogenic enzymes in autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, Addison disease, and premature ovarian failure . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:1871-1876.
63 +
Winqvist O, Soderbergh A, Kampe O.  The autoimmune basis of adrenocortical destruction in Addison disease . Mol Med Today . 1996;;2:282-289.
64 +
Neufeld M, MacLaren NK, Blizzard RM.  Autoimmune polygrandular syndromes . Pediatr Ann . 1980;;9:154-162.
65 +
Chuang LM, Wu HP, Chang CC, et al.  HLA DRB1/DQA1/DQB1 haplotype determines thyroid autoimmunity in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1996;;45:631-636.
66 +
Appleboom TM, Flowers FP.  Ketoconazole in the treatment of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis secondary to autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis syndrome . Cutis . 1982;;30:71-72.

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Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Gerstein HC, Vander Meulen J.  The relationship between cow's milk exposure and type 1 diabetes . Diabet Med . 1996;;13:23-29.
2 +
Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Freire MB.  Epidemiology of late diabetic complications: a basis for the development and evaluation of preventive programs . Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am . 1996;;25:217-242.
3 +
Skyler JS.  Diabetic complications: the importance of glucose control . Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am . 1996;;25:243-54.
4 +
Wilson K, Eisenbarth GS.  Immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy of type 1 diabetes . Annu Rev Med . 1990;;41:497-508.
5 +
de Leiva A.  Frontiers of clinical research in type 1 diabetes . Horm Res . 1996;;45:32-35.
6 +
Foulis AK.  The pathology of the endocrine pancreas in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus . APMIS . 1996;;104:161-167.
7 +
Baekkeskov S, Aanstoot H-J, Christgau S, et al.  Identification of the 64K autoantigen in insulin-dependent diabetes as the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase . Nature . 1990;;347:151-156.
8 +
Ellis TM, Atkinson MA.  The clinical significance of an autoimmune response against glutamic acid decarboxylase . Nat Med . 1996;;2:148-53.
9 +
Verge CF, Eisenbarth GS.  Strategies for preventing type 1 diabetes mellitus . West J Med . 1996;;164:249-55.
10 +
Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, et al.  Prediction of type 1 diabetes in first-degree relatives using a combination of insulin, GAD, and ICA512bdc/IA-2 autoantibodies . Diabetes . 1996;;45:926-33.
11 +
Riley WJ, Maclaren NK, Krischer J, et al.  A prospective study of the development of diabetes in relatives of patients with insulin dependent diabetes . N Engl J Med . 1990;;323:1167-72.
12 +
Undlien DE, Friede T, Rammensee HG, et al.  HLA-encoded genetic predisposition in IDDM: DR4 subtypes may be associated with different degrees of protection . Diabetes . 1997;;46:143-149.
13 +
Todd JA, Bell JI, McDevitt HO.  HLA-DQβgene contributes to susceptibility and resistance to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Nature . 1987;;329:599-604.
14 +
Baisch JM, Weeks T, Giles R, Hoover M, Stastny P, Capra JD.  Analysis of HLA-DQ genotypes and susceptibility in insulin-dependent diabetes melitus . N Engl J Med . 1990;;322:1836-1841.
15 +
Parham P.  A diversity of diabetes . Nature . 1990;;345:662-664.
16 +
Nistico L, Buzzetti R, Pritchard LE, et al.  The CTLA-4 gene region of chromosome 2q33 is linked to, and associated with, type 1 diabetes: Belgian Diabetes Registry . Hum Mol Genet . 1996;;5:1075-1080.
17 +
Owerbach D, Gabbay KH.  The search for IDDM susceptibility genes: the next generation . Diabetes . 1996;;45:544-551.
18 +
Kurrer MO, Pakala SV, Hanson HL, Katz JD.  Beta cell apoptosis in T cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1997;;94:213-218.
19 +
Merriman TR, Todd JA.  Genetics of insulin-dependent diabetes: nonmajor histocompatibility genes . Horm Metab Res . 1996;;28:289-293.
20 +
Falorni A, Ackefors M, Carlberg C, et al.  Diagnostic sensitivity of immunodominant epitopes of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) autoantibodies in childhood IDDM . Diabetologia . 1996;;39:1091-1098.
21 +
Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, et al.  Number of autoantibodies (against insulin, GAD or ICA512/IA2) rather than particular autoantibody specificities determines risk of type 1 diabetes . J Autoimmun . 1996;;9:379-383.
22 +
Worrall G.  Results of the DCCT trial: implications for managing our patients with diabetes . Can Fam Physician . 1994;;40:1955-1965.
23 +
Cook DL.  The beta-cell response to oral hypoglycemic agents . Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 1995;;28 ( (suppl) ):S81-S89.
24 +
Larsen JL, Stratta RJ.  Pancreas transplantation: a treatment option for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Diabetes Metab . 1996;;22:139-146.
25 +
Tian J, Atkinson MA, Clare-Salzler M, et al.  Nasal administration of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD65) peptides induces TH2 responses and prevents murine insulin-dependent diabetes . J Exp Med . 1996;;183:1561-1567.
26 +
Schatz DA, Rogers DG, Brouhard BH.  Prevention of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: an overview of three trials . Cleve Clin J Med . 1996;;63:270-274.
27 +
Blanas E, Carbone FR, Allison J, Miller JF, Heath WR.  Induction of autoimmune diabetes by oral administration of autoantigen . Science . 1996;;274:1707-1709.
28 +
McFarland HF.  Complexities in the treatment of autoimmune disease . Science . 1996;;274:2037-2038.
29 +
Wilson K, Eisenbarth GS.  Immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy of type 1 diabetes . Annu Rev Med . 1990;;41:497-508.
30 +
Tian J, Clare-Salzler M, Herschenfeld A, et al.  Modulating autoimmune responses to GAD inhibits disease progression and prolongs islet graft survival in diabetes-prone mice . Nat Med . 1996;;2:1348-1353.
31 +
Savage MO, Dunger DB.  Recombinant IGF-I therapy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Diabetes Metab . 1996;;22:257-260.
32 +
Kloos RT, Baker JR Jr.  Thyroiditis . In: Robert ER, ed. Conn's Current Therapy . Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 1996;:634-641.
33 +
Weetman AP, McGregor AM.  Autoimmune thyroid disease . Endocr Rev . 1984;;5:309-337.
34 +
Baker JR Jr.  Immunogenetics, the HLA system and endocrine disease . In: Becker KL, ed. The Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism . Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Raven; 1990;:1401-1404.
35 +
Kawai H, Mitsui T, Yokoi K, et al.  Evidence of HTLV-I in thyroid tissue in an HTLV-I carrier with Hashimoto thyroiditis . J Mol Med . 1996;;74:275-278.
36 +
Ajjan RA, Watson PF, McIntosh RS, Weetman AP.  Intrathyroidal cytokine gene expression in Hashimoto thyroiditis . Clin Exp Immunol . 1996;;105:523-528.
37 +
McMurray RW, Tang H, Braley-Mullen H.  The role of alpha 4 integrin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in murine experimental autoimmune thyroiditis . Autoimmunity . 1996;;23:9-23.
38 +
Chazenbalk GD, Portolano S, Russo D, Hutchison JS, Rapoport B, McLachlan S.  Human organspecific autoimmune disease: molecular cloning and expression of an autoantibody gene repertoire for a major autoantigen reveals an antigenic immunodominant region and restricted immunoglobulin gene usage in the target organ . J Clin Invest . 1993;;92:62-74.
39 +
Heufelder AE, Wenzel BE, Scriba PC.  Antigen receptor variable region repertoires expressed by T cells infiltrating thyroid, retroorbital, and pretibial tissue in Graves disease . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:3733-3739.
40 +
Roitt IM, Cooke A.  The role of autoantigen in autoimmunity . Immunol Lett . 1987;;16:259-263.
41 +
McLachlan SM, Rapoport B.  The molecular biology of thyroid peroxidase: cloning, expression and role as autoantigen in autoimmune thyroid disease . Endocr Rev . 1992;;13:192-206.
42 +
McLachlan SM, Rapoport B.  Genetic and epitopic analysis of thyroid peroxidase (TPO) autoantibodies: markers of the human thyroid autoimmune response . Clin Exp Immunol . 1995;;101:200-206.
43 +
Arscott PL, Koenig RL, Kaplan MM, Glick GD, Baker JR Jr.  Unique autoantibody epitopes in an imunodominant region of thyroid peroxidase . J Biol Chem . 1996;;271:4966-4973.
44 +
Libert F, Ludgate M, Vassart G.  Thyroperoxidase, but not the thyrotropin receptor, contains sequential epitopes recognized by autoantibodies in recombinant peptides expressed in the pUEX vector . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1991;;73:857-860.
45 +
Endo T, Kogai T, Nakazato M, Saito T, Kaneshige M, Onaya T.  Autoantibody against Na+/ I- symporter in the sera of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease . Biochem Biophys Res Commun . 1996;;224:92-95.
46 +
Kawakami A.  Thyroid-stimulating hormone inhibits Fas antigen mediated apoptosis of human thyrocytes in vitro . Endocrinology . 1996;;137:3163-3169.
47 +
Giordano C.  Potential involvement of Fas and its ligand in the pathogenesis of Hashimoto thyroiditis . Science . 1997;;275:960-963.
48 +
Marcocci C, Golia F, Bruno-Bossio G, Vignali E, Pinchera A.  Carefully monitored levothyroxine suppressive therapy is not associated with bone loss in premenopausal women . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1994;;78:818-823.
49 +
Feldmann M, Dayan C, Rapoport B, Londei M.  T cell activation and antigen presentation in human thyroid autoimmunity . J Autoimmun . 1992;;5( (suppl A) ):115-121.
50 +
Akamizu T, Kohn LD, Mori T.  Molecular studies on thyrotropin receptor and anti-thyrotropin receptor antibodies . Endocr J . 1995;;42:617-627.
51 +
Radosavljevic VR, Jankovic SM, Marinkovic JM.  Stressful life events in the pathogenesis of Graves disease . Eur J Endocrinol . 1996;;134:699-701.
52 +
Parmentier M, Libert F, Maenhaut C, et al.  Molecular cloning of the thyrotropin receptor . Science . 1989;;246:1620-1622.
53 +
Rapoport B, McLachlan SM, Kakinuma A, Chazenbalk GD.  Critical relationship between autoantibody recognition and thyrotropin receptor maturation as reflected in the acquisition of complex carbohydrate . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:2525-2533.
54 +
Vlase H, Matsuoka N, Graves PN, Magnusson RP, Davies TF.  Folding-dependent binding of thyrotropin and thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies to the murine thyrotropin receptor ectodomain . Endocrinology . 1997;;138:1658-1666.
55 +
Barlow AB, Wheatcroft N, Watson P, Weetman AP.  Association of HLA-DQA1*0501 with Graves disease in English Caucasian men and women . Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1996;;44:73-77.
56 +
Sridama V, Hara Y, Fauchet R, DeGroot LJ.  HLA immunogenetic heterogeneity in black American patients with Graves disease . Arch Intern Med . 1987;;147:229-231.
57 +
Donner H, Rau H, Walfish PG, et al.  CTLA4 alanine-17 confers genetic susceptibility to Graves disease and to type 1 diabetes mellitus . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1997;;82:143-146.
58 +
Wagle NM, Dallas JS, Seetharamaiah GS, et al.  Induction of hyperthyroxinemia in BALB/C but not in several other strains of mice . Autoimmunity . 1994;;18:103-112.
59 +
Shimojo N, Kohno Y, Yamaguchi K, et al.  Induction of Graves-like disease in mice by immunization with fibroblasts transfected with the thyrotropin receptor and a class 2 molecule . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1996;;93:11074-11079.
60 +
Heufelder AE, Dutton CM, Sarkar G, Donovan KA, Bahn RS.  Detection of thyrotropin receptor RNA in cultured fibroblasts from patients with Graves ophthalmopathy and pretibial dermopathy . Thyroid . 1993;;3:297-300.
61 +
Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Kadrmas EF, et al.  The treatment of Graves ophthalmopathy in an incidence cohort . Am J Ophthalmol . 1996;;121:200-206.
62 +
Chen S, Sawicka J, Betterle C, et al.  Autoantibodies to steroidogenic enzymes in autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, Addison disease, and premature ovarian failure . J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1996;;81:1871-1876.
63 +
Winqvist O, Soderbergh A, Kampe O.  The autoimmune basis of adrenocortical destruction in Addison disease . Mol Med Today . 1996;;2:282-289.
64 +
Neufeld M, MacLaren NK, Blizzard RM.  Autoimmune polygrandular syndromes . Pediatr Ann . 1980;;9:154-162.
65 +
Chuang LM, Wu HP, Chang CC, et al.  HLA DRB1/DQA1/DQB1 haplotype determines thyroid autoimmunity in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) . 1996;;45:631-636.
66 +
Appleboom TM, Flowers FP.  Ketoconazole in the treatment of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis secondary to autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis syndrome . Cutis . 1982;;30:71-72.

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