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August 5, 1992, Vol 268, No. 5 >
ARTICLE | August 5, 1992

Epidemiological and Laboratory Studies of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields FREE

Leonard A. Sagan, MD
[+] Author Affiliations

Reprint requests to Environment Division, Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Ave, PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, CA 94303 (Dr Sagan).


JAMA. 1992;268(5):625-629. doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03490050073029
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Published online
Article
References

A LONG history of lore suggests that magnetism and electricity influence human health, generally for the better. For example, more than 200 years ago, Dr Anton Mesmer attracted worldwide attention with his claim to cure a variety of diseases through exposure to magnetism (and thus, "Mesmerism").1 Reports are now appearing that magnetic fields may be harmful to health. Whether 200 years from now our progeny will look back at this concern as superstition, as we do at Mesmerism, or as the discovery of a new field of health science, is not yet clear.

BACKGROUND  Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) surround all electrical conductors, including power lines, household wiring, and appliances. There are two components to EMF, electrical and magnetic, that under usual circumstances occur together, but the magnitude of each varies independently. Since the magnitude of the electric field component is determined by voltage, the electric fields are generally

REFERENCES

1 +
Zweig S. Mental Healers . New York, NY: Viking Press; 1962;.
2 +
Gauger JR.  Household appliance magnetic field survey. IEEE Trans Power Apparatus Systems . 1986;;140:2436-2444.
3 +
Biological Effects of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: Background Paper . Washington, DC: US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment; 1992;. OTA-BP-E-53.
4 +
Nordenson K, Hannson-Mild K, Ostman U, Ljungberg H.  Chromosomal effects in lymphocytes of 400-kV substation workers. Radiat Environ Biophysics . 1988;;27:39-47.
5 +
Tenforde TS.  Electroreception and magnetoreception in simple and complex organisms. Bioelectromagnetics . 1989;;10:215-221.
6 +
Lovsund P, Oberg PA, Nilsson SE, Reuter T.  Magnetophosphenes: a quantitative analysis of thresholds. Med Biol Eng Comput . 1980;;18:326-334.
7 +
Tenforde TS.  Biological interactions and human health effects of extremely low frequency magnetic fields.  In: Wilson B, Stevens R, Anderson L, eds. Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer . Richland, Wash: Battelle Press; 1990;:291-318.
8 +
Korobkova V, Morozov Y, Stolarov M, Yakub Y. Influence of the electric field in 500 and 750 kV switchyards on maintenance staff and means for its protection. Presented at the International Conference on Large High-Tension Electric Systems; August 28-September 6, 1972; Paris, France. Paper 23-06.
9 +
Gamberale F.  Physiological and psychological effects of exposure to extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields on humans. Scand J Work Environ Health . 1992;;16( (suppl 1) ):51-54.
10 +
Graham C. Immunological and Biochemical Effects of 60-Hz Electric and Magnetic Fields in Humans: Final Report . Kansas City, Mo: Midwest Research Institute; 1990;.
11 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol . 1979;;109:273-284.
12 +
Adair R,  Constraints on biological effects of weak extemely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields. Phys Rev . 1991;;43:1039-1048.
13 +
Barnes H, Wachtel H, Savitz D, Fuller J.  Use of wiring configuration and wire codes for estimating externally generated electric and magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics . 1989;;10:13-21.
14 +
Fulton JP, Cobb S, Preble L, Leone L, Forman E.  Electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidemiol . 1980;; 111:292-296.
15 +
Wertheimer N.  Re: electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidemiol . 1980;;111:461-462.
16 +
Tomenius L.  50-Hz electromagnetic field environment and the incidence of childhood tumors in Stockholm County. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:191-207.
17 +
Savitz DA, Wachtel H, Barnes FA, John EM, Tvrdik RG.  Case-control study of childhood cancer and residential exposure to electric and magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128:21-38.
18 +
London SJ, Thomas DC, Bowman JD, Sobel E, Cheng TC, Peters J.  Exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;;134:923-937.
19 +
Myers A, Clayton AD, Cartwright RA, Cartwright SC.  Childhood cancer and overhead powerlines: a case-control study. Br J Cancer . 1990;;62: 1008-1014.
20 +
Coleman MP, Bell CMJ, Taylor HL, Primic-Zakelj M.  Leukaemia and residence near electricity transmission equipment: a case-control study. Br J Cancer . 1989;;60:793-798.
21 +
Savitz DA, Feingold L.  Association of childhood cancer with residential traffic density. Scan J Work Environ Health . 1989;;15:360-363.
22 +
Davis MK, Savitz DA, Graubard BI.  Infant feeding and childhood cancer. Lancet . 1988;;2:365-368.
23 +
Lowengart RA, Peters JM, Cicioni C, et al.  Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst . 1987;;79:39-46.
24 +
Jauchem J, Merritt J.  The epidemiology of exposure to electromagnetic fields: an overview of the recent literature. J Clin Epidemiol . 1991;;44:895-906.
25 +
Poole C, Trichopolos D.  Extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Cancer Causes Control . 1991;;2:267-276.
26 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int J Epidemiol . 1982;;11:345-355.
27 +
Severson RK, Stevens RG, Kaune WT, et al.  Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia and residential exposure to power frequency magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128:10-38.
28 +
Youngson JHAM, Clayden AD, Myers A, Cartright RA.  A case/control study of adult haematological malignancies in relation to overhead powerlines. Br J Cancer . 1991;;63:977-998.
29 +
Theriault G.  Health effects of electromagnetic fields on workers: epidemiologic studies . In: Proceedings of the Scientific Workshop on the Health Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields . Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; 1991;. DHHS (NIOSH) publication 91-111.
30 +
Electromagnetic Fields and the Risk of Cancer: Report of an Advisory Group on Non-ionizing Radiation . London, England: National Radiation Protection Board; 1992;;3.
31 +
Beniashvili DS, Bilanishvili VG, Menabde MS.  Low-frequency electromagnetic radiation enhances the induction of rat mammary tumors by nitrosomethylurea. Cancer Lett . 1991;;61:75-79.
32 +
McLean JR, Stuchley M, Mitchell RE, Goddard M, Lecuyer DW. Tumor co-promotion in the mouse skin by 60-Hz magnetic fields. Presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of The Bioelectromagnetic Society; June 23-27, 1991; Salt Lake City, Utah.
33 +
Cohen MM, Kunska A, Astemborski JA, McCulloch D, Paskewitz DA.  Effect of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells, I: mitotic rate and chromosome breakage in human peripheral lymphocytes. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;; 7:415-423.
34 +
Cohen MM, Kunska A, Astemborski JA, McCulloch D.  The effect of low-level 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells. Mutat Res . 1986;;172:177-184.
35 +
Reese JA, Jostes RF, Frazier ME.  Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: analysis for DNA single-strand breaks. Bioelectromagnetics . 1988;;9:237-247.
36 +
Livingston GH, Witt KL, Gandhi OP, Chaterjee I, Roti Roti JL.  Reproduction integrity of mammalian cells exposed to power frequency electromagnetic fields. Environ Mol Mutagen . 1991;;17: 49-58.
37 +
Pitot HC, Dragan YP.  Facts and theories concerning the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. FASEB J . 1991;;5:2280-2285.
38 +
Blask DE.  The emerging role of the pineal gland and melatonin in oncogenesis . In: Wilson B, Stevens R, Anderson L, eds. Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer . Richland, Wash: Battelle Press; 1990;.
39 +
Wilson BW, Chess EK, Anderson LE.  60-Hz electric-field effects on pineal melatonin rhythms: time course for onset and recovery. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:239-242.
40 +
Lerchl LA, Honaka KO, Reiter RJ.  Pineal gland 'magnetiosensitivity' to static magnetic fields is a consequence of induced electric currents (eddy currents). J Pineal Res . 1991;;10:109-116.
41 +
Severson RK.  Book review of Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst . 1991;;83:1028-1029.
42 +
Byus CV, Pieper SE, Adey WR.  The effects of low-energy 60 Hz environmental electromagnetic fields upon the growth-related enzyme ornithine decarboxylase. Carcinogenesis . 1987;;8:1385-1389.
43 +
Goodman R, Wei L-X, Ku J-C, Henderson A. Quantitative changes in transcripts result from varying signal amplitude. In: Abstracts of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Bioelectromagnetics Society; June 10-14, 1990.
44 +
Blackman CF, Benane SG, Elliott DJ, House DE, Pollack MM.  Importance of electromagnetic fields on the efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro: a three model analysis consistent with the frequency response up to 510 Hz. Bioelectromagnetics . 1988;;9:215-227.
45 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Possible effects of electric blankets and heated waterbeds on fetal development. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:13-22.
46 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Fetal loss associated with two seasonal sources of electromagnetic field exposure. Am J Epidemiol . 1989;;129:220-224.
47 +
Klauenberg BJ.  Fetal loss associated with two seasonal sources of electromagnetic field exposure. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;;134:913-914.
48 +
Nordstrom S, Birke E, Gustavsson L.  Reproductive hazards among workers in high voltage switch yards. Bioelectromagnetics . 1983;;4:91-101.
49 +
Bunin G, Ward E, Kramer S, Rhee CA, Meadows AT.  Neuroblastoma and parental occupation. Am J Epidemiol . 1990;;131:776-780.
50 +
Nasca PC, Baptiste MS, MacCubbin PA, et al.  An epidemiologic case-control study of central nervous system tumors in children and parental occupational exposures. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128: 1256-1265.
51 +
Spitz MR, Johnson CC.  Neuroblastoma and paternal occupation: a case-control analysis. Am J Epidemiol . 1985;;121:924-929.
52 +
Chernoff N, Rogers JM, Kavet R.  A review of the literature on potential reproductive and developmental toxicity of electric and magnetic fields. Toxicology . In press.
53 +
Sikov DN, Rommeriem JL, Beamer RL, et al.  Developmental studies of Hanford miniature swine exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics . 1987;;8:229-242.
54 +
Rommereim DN, Rommereim RL, Sikov MR, Buschbom RL, Anderson LE.  Reproduction, growth, and development of rats during chronic exposure to multiple field strengths of 60-Hz electric fields. Fundam Appl Toxicol . 1990;;14:608-621.
55 +
Broadbent DE, Broadbent MHP, Male JC, Jones MRL.  Health of workers exposed to electric fields. Br J Ind Med . 1985;;42:75-84.
56 +
Knave B, Gamberale S, Bergstrom S, et al.  Long-term exposure to electric fields: a cross sectional epidemiological investigation of occupationally exposed workers in high voltage substations. Scand J Work Environ Health . 1979;;5:115-125.
57 +
Perry F, Reichmanis M, Marino A, Becker R.  Environmental power-frequency magnetic fields and suicide. Health Phys . 1981;;41:267-277.
58 +
Baris D, Armstrong B.  Suicide among electric utility workers in England and Wales. Br J Ind Med . 1990;;47:788-789.
59 +
McDowall ME.  Mortality of persons resident in the vicinity of electricity transmission facilities. Br J Cancer . 1986;;53:271-279.
60 +
Salzinger K, Freimark S, McCullough M, Phillips D, Birenbaum L.  Altered operant behavior of adult rats after perinatal exposure to a 60-Hz electromagnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics . 1990;;11:105-116.
61 +
McGivern RF, Sokol RZ, Adey WR.  Prenatal exposure to a low-frequency electromagnetic field demasculinizes adult scent marking behavior and increases accessory organ weights in rats. Teratology . 1990;;41:1-8.
62 +
Kirschvink J, Jones D, MacFadden B. Magnetite Biomineralization and Magnetoreception in Organisms . New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1985;.
63 +
Kirschvink J, Kobayashi-Kirschvink A, Woodford BJ. Magnetite biomineralization in the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. In press.

Figures

Tables

Interactive Graphics

Video

Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Zweig S. Mental Healers . New York, NY: Viking Press; 1962;.
2 +
Gauger JR.  Household appliance magnetic field survey. IEEE Trans Power Apparatus Systems . 1986;;140:2436-2444.
3 +
Biological Effects of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: Background Paper . Washington, DC: US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment; 1992;. OTA-BP-E-53.
4 +
Nordenson K, Hannson-Mild K, Ostman U, Ljungberg H.  Chromosomal effects in lymphocytes of 400-kV substation workers. Radiat Environ Biophysics . 1988;;27:39-47.
5 +
Tenforde TS.  Electroreception and magnetoreception in simple and complex organisms. Bioelectromagnetics . 1989;;10:215-221.
6 +
Lovsund P, Oberg PA, Nilsson SE, Reuter T.  Magnetophosphenes: a quantitative analysis of thresholds. Med Biol Eng Comput . 1980;;18:326-334.
7 +
Tenforde TS.  Biological interactions and human health effects of extremely low frequency magnetic fields.  In: Wilson B, Stevens R, Anderson L, eds. Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer . Richland, Wash: Battelle Press; 1990;:291-318.
8 +
Korobkova V, Morozov Y, Stolarov M, Yakub Y. Influence of the electric field in 500 and 750 kV switchyards on maintenance staff and means for its protection. Presented at the International Conference on Large High-Tension Electric Systems; August 28-September 6, 1972; Paris, France. Paper 23-06.
9 +
Gamberale F.  Physiological and psychological effects of exposure to extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields on humans. Scand J Work Environ Health . 1992;;16( (suppl 1) ):51-54.
10 +
Graham C. Immunological and Biochemical Effects of 60-Hz Electric and Magnetic Fields in Humans: Final Report . Kansas City, Mo: Midwest Research Institute; 1990;.
11 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidemiol . 1979;;109:273-284.
12 +
Adair R,  Constraints on biological effects of weak extemely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields. Phys Rev . 1991;;43:1039-1048.
13 +
Barnes H, Wachtel H, Savitz D, Fuller J.  Use of wiring configuration and wire codes for estimating externally generated electric and magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics . 1989;;10:13-21.
14 +
Fulton JP, Cobb S, Preble L, Leone L, Forman E.  Electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidemiol . 1980;; 111:292-296.
15 +
Wertheimer N.  Re: electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidemiol . 1980;;111:461-462.
16 +
Tomenius L.  50-Hz electromagnetic field environment and the incidence of childhood tumors in Stockholm County. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:191-207.
17 +
Savitz DA, Wachtel H, Barnes FA, John EM, Tvrdik RG.  Case-control study of childhood cancer and residential exposure to electric and magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128:21-38.
18 +
London SJ, Thomas DC, Bowman JD, Sobel E, Cheng TC, Peters J.  Exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;;134:923-937.
19 +
Myers A, Clayton AD, Cartwright RA, Cartwright SC.  Childhood cancer and overhead powerlines: a case-control study. Br J Cancer . 1990;;62: 1008-1014.
20 +
Coleman MP, Bell CMJ, Taylor HL, Primic-Zakelj M.  Leukaemia and residence near electricity transmission equipment: a case-control study. Br J Cancer . 1989;;60:793-798.
21 +
Savitz DA, Feingold L.  Association of childhood cancer with residential traffic density. Scan J Work Environ Health . 1989;;15:360-363.
22 +
Davis MK, Savitz DA, Graubard BI.  Infant feeding and childhood cancer. Lancet . 1988;;2:365-368.
23 +
Lowengart RA, Peters JM, Cicioni C, et al.  Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst . 1987;;79:39-46.
24 +
Jauchem J, Merritt J.  The epidemiology of exposure to electromagnetic fields: an overview of the recent literature. J Clin Epidemiol . 1991;;44:895-906.
25 +
Poole C, Trichopolos D.  Extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Cancer Causes Control . 1991;;2:267-276.
26 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int J Epidemiol . 1982;;11:345-355.
27 +
Severson RK, Stevens RG, Kaune WT, et al.  Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia and residential exposure to power frequency magnetic fields. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128:10-38.
28 +
Youngson JHAM, Clayden AD, Myers A, Cartright RA.  A case/control study of adult haematological malignancies in relation to overhead powerlines. Br J Cancer . 1991;;63:977-998.
29 +
Theriault G.  Health effects of electromagnetic fields on workers: epidemiologic studies . In: Proceedings of the Scientific Workshop on the Health Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields . Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; 1991;. DHHS (NIOSH) publication 91-111.
30 +
Electromagnetic Fields and the Risk of Cancer: Report of an Advisory Group on Non-ionizing Radiation . London, England: National Radiation Protection Board; 1992;;3.
31 +
Beniashvili DS, Bilanishvili VG, Menabde MS.  Low-frequency electromagnetic radiation enhances the induction of rat mammary tumors by nitrosomethylurea. Cancer Lett . 1991;;61:75-79.
32 +
McLean JR, Stuchley M, Mitchell RE, Goddard M, Lecuyer DW. Tumor co-promotion in the mouse skin by 60-Hz magnetic fields. Presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of The Bioelectromagnetic Society; June 23-27, 1991; Salt Lake City, Utah.
33 +
Cohen MM, Kunska A, Astemborski JA, McCulloch D, Paskewitz DA.  Effect of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells, I: mitotic rate and chromosome breakage in human peripheral lymphocytes. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;; 7:415-423.
34 +
Cohen MM, Kunska A, Astemborski JA, McCulloch D.  The effect of low-level 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells. Mutat Res . 1986;;172:177-184.
35 +
Reese JA, Jostes RF, Frazier ME.  Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: analysis for DNA single-strand breaks. Bioelectromagnetics . 1988;;9:237-247.
36 +
Livingston GH, Witt KL, Gandhi OP, Chaterjee I, Roti Roti JL.  Reproduction integrity of mammalian cells exposed to power frequency electromagnetic fields. Environ Mol Mutagen . 1991;;17: 49-58.
37 +
Pitot HC, Dragan YP.  Facts and theories concerning the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. FASEB J . 1991;;5:2280-2285.
38 +
Blask DE.  The emerging role of the pineal gland and melatonin in oncogenesis . In: Wilson B, Stevens R, Anderson L, eds. Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer . Richland, Wash: Battelle Press; 1990;.
39 +
Wilson BW, Chess EK, Anderson LE.  60-Hz electric-field effects on pineal melatonin rhythms: time course for onset and recovery. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:239-242.
40 +
Lerchl LA, Honaka KO, Reiter RJ.  Pineal gland 'magnetiosensitivity' to static magnetic fields is a consequence of induced electric currents (eddy currents). J Pineal Res . 1991;;10:109-116.
41 +
Severson RK.  Book review of Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst . 1991;;83:1028-1029.
42 +
Byus CV, Pieper SE, Adey WR.  The effects of low-energy 60 Hz environmental electromagnetic fields upon the growth-related enzyme ornithine decarboxylase. Carcinogenesis . 1987;;8:1385-1389.
43 +
Goodman R, Wei L-X, Ku J-C, Henderson A. Quantitative changes in transcripts result from varying signal amplitude. In: Abstracts of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Bioelectromagnetics Society; June 10-14, 1990.
44 +
Blackman CF, Benane SG, Elliott DJ, House DE, Pollack MM.  Importance of electromagnetic fields on the efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro: a three model analysis consistent with the frequency response up to 510 Hz. Bioelectromagnetics . 1988;;9:215-227.
45 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Possible effects of electric blankets and heated waterbeds on fetal development. Bioelectromagnetics . 1986;;7:13-22.
46 +
Wertheimer N, Leeper E.  Fetal loss associated with two seasonal sources of electromagnetic field exposure. Am J Epidemiol . 1989;;129:220-224.
47 +
Klauenberg BJ.  Fetal loss associated with two seasonal sources of electromagnetic field exposure. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;;134:913-914.
48 +
Nordstrom S, Birke E, Gustavsson L.  Reproductive hazards among workers in high voltage switch yards. Bioelectromagnetics . 1983;;4:91-101.
49 +
Bunin G, Ward E, Kramer S, Rhee CA, Meadows AT.  Neuroblastoma and parental occupation. Am J Epidemiol . 1990;;131:776-780.
50 +
Nasca PC, Baptiste MS, MacCubbin PA, et al.  An epidemiologic case-control study of central nervous system tumors in children and parental occupational exposures. Am J Epidemiol . 1988;;128: 1256-1265.
51 +
Spitz MR, Johnson CC.  Neuroblastoma and paternal occupation: a case-control analysis. Am J Epidemiol . 1985;;121:924-929.
52 +
Chernoff N, Rogers JM, Kavet R.  A review of the literature on potential reproductive and developmental toxicity of electric and magnetic fields. Toxicology . In press.
53 +
Sikov DN, Rommeriem JL, Beamer RL, et al.  Developmental studies of Hanford miniature swine exposed to 60-Hz electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics . 1987;;8:229-242.
54 +
Rommereim DN, Rommereim RL, Sikov MR, Buschbom RL, Anderson LE.  Reproduction, growth, and development of rats during chronic exposure to multiple field strengths of 60-Hz electric fields. Fundam Appl Toxicol . 1990;;14:608-621.
55 +
Broadbent DE, Broadbent MHP, Male JC, Jones MRL.  Health of workers exposed to electric fields. Br J Ind Med . 1985;;42:75-84.
56 +
Knave B, Gamberale S, Bergstrom S, et al.  Long-term exposure to electric fields: a cross sectional epidemiological investigation of occupationally exposed workers in high voltage substations. Scand J Work Environ Health . 1979;;5:115-125.
57 +
Perry F, Reichmanis M, Marino A, Becker R.  Environmental power-frequency magnetic fields and suicide. Health Phys . 1981;;41:267-277.
58 +
Baris D, Armstrong B.  Suicide among electric utility workers in England and Wales. Br J Ind Med . 1990;;47:788-789.
59 +
McDowall ME.  Mortality of persons resident in the vicinity of electricity transmission facilities. Br J Cancer . 1986;;53:271-279.
60 +
Salzinger K, Freimark S, McCullough M, Phillips D, Birenbaum L.  Altered operant behavior of adult rats after perinatal exposure to a 60-Hz electromagnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics . 1990;;11:105-116.
61 +
McGivern RF, Sokol RZ, Adey WR.  Prenatal exposure to a low-frequency electromagnetic field demasculinizes adult scent marking behavior and increases accessory organ weights in rats. Teratology . 1990;;41:1-8.
62 +
Kirschvink J, Jones D, MacFadden B. Magnetite Biomineralization and Magnetoreception in Organisms . New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1985;.
63 +
Kirschvink J, Kobayashi-Kirschvink A, Woodford BJ. Magnetite biomineralization in the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. In press.

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