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September 18, 1991, Vol 266, No. 11 >
ARTICLE | September 18, 1991

Mandatory Treatment for Drug Use During Pregnancy FREE

Wendy Chavkin, MD, MPH
[+] Author Affiliations

The opinions are those of the author, who accepts sole responsibility.

Reprint requests to Chemical Dependency Institute, Beth Israel Medical Center, First Avenue at 16th Street, New York, NY 10003 (Dr Chavkin).


JAMA. 1991;266(11):1556-1561. doi:10.1001/jama.1991.03470110102041
Text Size: A A A
Published online
Article
References

THE CRACK epidemic is unique among American drug waves because of the high level of involvement of young women.1,2 In response to this, there have been attempts to impose criminal sanctions on pregnant women who use drugs or alcohol. To date, there have been 50 efforts to prosecute women for using drugs or alcohol while pregnant, with two convictions, and at least seven states have legislation pending that would alter child protective laws to encompass drug use during pregnancy under the rubric of fetal abuse.3,4 Fueled by hotly contested political controversies, such as the legal status of the fetus and the criminalization of addiction, the debate has generally polarized between therapy or sanction.

Some have proposed mandatory treatment for pregnant women as a compromise. This article examines other experiences with mandatory treatment to assess whether such treatment has proven efficacious, whether these

REFERENCES

1 +
Frank B, Hopkins W, Marel R. Current Drug Use Trends in New York City . New York: New York State Division of Substance Abuse Services; April 1990;.
2 +
Habel L, Kaye K, Lee J, et al. Trends in reporting of maternal substance use in New York City. Presented at the American Public Health Association annual meeting; November 14,1988; Boston, Mass.
3 +
Paltrow L. Case Overview of Arguments Against Permitting Forced Surgery, Prosecution of Pregnant Women or Civil Sanctions Against Them for Conduct or Status During Pregnancy . New York, NY: American Civil Liberties Union Reproductive Freedom Project; 1989;. Memorandum.
4 +
Moore KG, ed. Substance Abuse and Pregnancy: State Lawmakers Respond With Punitive and Public Health Measures . Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 1990;:9.
5 +
Leukefeld CG, Tims FM.  Compulsory treatment: a review of findings.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:236-249. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
6 +
Anglin MD.  The efficacy of civil commitment in treating narcotic addiction.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:8-34. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
7 +
Barry E.  Pregnant prisoners. Harvard Wom Law J . 1989;;12:198-205.
8 +
Inciardi JA.  Some considerations on the clinical efficacy of compulsory treatment: reviewing the New York experience.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:126-138. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
9 +
Winick C.  Some policy implications of the New York State civil commitment program. J Drug Issues . 1988;;19:561-574.
10 +
Foster-Cook L, Weinman BA.  Treatment alternatives to street crime.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:99-105. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
11 +
Hubbard RL, Collins JJ, Valley RJ, et al.  The criminal justice client in drug abuse treatment.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:56-88. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
12 +
Bureau of Justice Assistance.Guidelines for Implementing and Operating Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime . Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice; 1988;.
13 +
Simpson D, Wayne D, Friend HJ.  Legal status and long-term outcomes for addicts in the DARP follow-up project.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:81-98. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
14 +
DeLeon G.  Legal pressure in therapeutic communities.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:160-177. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
15 +
Moise R, Reed B, Conell C.  Women in drug abuse treatment programs: factors that influence retention at very early and later stages in two treatment modalities: a summary. Int J Addict . 1981;;16:1295-1300.
16 +
State by State Survey of Civil Commitment Statutes . Washington, DC: Legal Action Center; 1990;.
17 +
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice.Task Force Report: Narcotics and Drug Abuse . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1967;.
18 +
Maddux JF.  Clinical experience with civil commitment.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:35-56. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89- 1578. Research Monograph Series.
19 +
Mass Annotated Laws ch 123, §35.
20 +
McCarty D, Argeriou M.  Rearrest following residential treatment for repeat offender drunken drivers. J Stud Alcohol . 1986;;49:1-6.
21 +
Holden RT.  Rehabilitative sanctions for drunk driving: an experimental evaluation. J Res Crime Delinquency . 1983;;20:55-72.
22 +
Ben-Aries 0, Swartz L, George GC.  The compulsory treatment of alcoholic drunken drivers referred by the courts: a seven- to nine-year outcome study. Int J Law Psychiatry . 1986;;8:31-43.
23 +
Gurnack AM.  Rehabilitation outcomes for alcohol-impaired drivers referred for assessment in two Wisconsin counties. J Alcohol Drug Educ . 1989;;35:45-59.
24 +
Fizeck LS, Zare N.  Factors affecting referrals from employee assistance programs to community agencies. Employee Assistance Q . 1988;;4:31-43.
25 +
Masi PA, Boyle P.  An evening and weekend treatment program for alcoholism in the workplace. Employee Assistance Q . 1987;;12:33-39.
26 +
Gernstein DR, Harwood HJ, eds. Institute of Medicine: Treating Drug Problems, I . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1990;.
27 +
Irueste-Montes AM, Montes F.  Court-ordered versus voluntary treatment of abusive and neglectful parents. J Child Abuse Neglect . 1988;;12:33-39.
28 +
Famularo R, Kinschuff R, Bunshaft O, et al.  Parental compliance to court-ordered treatment interventions in cases of child maltreatment. J Child Abuse Neglect . 1989;;13:507-514.
29 +
Newman RG.  The argument against long-term addiction treatment in prison. Drug Forum . 1977;;5:1976-1977.
30 +
Newman RG.  Involuntary treatment of drug addiction. Yale Rev Law Social Action . 1973;;3:246-253.
31 +
Chavkin W.  Drug addiction and pregnancy: policy crossroads. Am J Public Health . 1990;;80:483-487.
32 +
Beschner GM, Thompson P. Women and Drug Abuse Treatment: Needs and Services . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1981;. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 84-1057. Research Monograph Series.
33 +
Brown SS, ed. Children and Parental Illicit Drug Use: Research, Clinical, and Policy Issues . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1991;.
34 +
Rubenstein LS.  Treatment of the mentally ill: legal advocacy enters the second generation. Am J Psychiatry . 1986;;143:1264-1269.
35 +
Newman RG.  Special problems of government-controlled methadone maintenance programs. Contemp Drug Probl . 1972;;1:183-190.
36 +
Schottenfeld RS.  Involuntary treatment of substance abuse disorders: impediments to success. Psychiatry . 1989;;52:164-175.
37 +
Pompi KF, Resnick J.  Retention of court-referred adolescents and young adults in the therapeutic community. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse . 1987;;13:309-325.
38 +
Johnson v State of Florida, Dis Ct Appeal (5th Dis) Fla 89-1765.
39 +
Chavkin W.  Jennifer Johnson's sentence. J Clin Ethics . 1991;;1:140-141.
40 +
Chavkin W, St Clair D.  Beyond prenatal care: a comprehensive vision of reproductive health. J Am Med Wom Assoc . 1990;;45:55-57.
41 +
American Medical Association Board of Trustees Report. Legal interventions during pregnancy: court-ordered medical treatments and legal penalties for potentially harmful behavior by pregnant women. JAMA . 1990;;264:2663-2670.
42 +
Lawrence Robinson v California, 370 US 660, 8L ed 2d 758, 82 S Ct 1417 (No. 554).
43 +
Paltrow L.  When becoming pregnant is a crime. Criminal Justice Ethics . (Winter) /spring 1990;:41-47.
44 +
Moss K.  Recent developments: substance abuse during pregnancy. Harvard Worn Law J . 1990;;13:278-285.
45 +
Brown BS.  Civil commitment: an international perspective. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:663-678.
46 +
Rosenthal MP.  The constitutionality of involuntary civil commitment of opiate addicts. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:641-662.
47 +
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Statement. Patient choice: maternal-fetal conflict. Worn Health Issues . (Fall) 1990;;1:13-15.
48 +
American Medical Association Board of Trustees Report. Legal interventions during pregnancy. JAMA . 1990;;264:2663-2670.
49 +
McNulty M.  Pregnancy police: the health policy and legal implications of punishing pregnant women for harm to their fetuses. Rev Law Social Change . 1987;/1988;16:277-319.
50 +
Allen A.  An affirmation of ACOG committee opinion. Worn Health Issues . (Fall) 1990;;1:37-40.
51 +
Mariner WK, Glantz LH, Arnes GJ.  Pregnancy, drugs and the perils of prosecution. Criminal Justice Ethics . (Winter) /Spring 1990;:30-41.
52 +
Kolder V, Gallagher J, Parsons M.  Court-ordered obstetrical interventions. N Engl J Med . 1987;;316:1192-1196.
53 +
Paltrow L, Shende S. State by State Summary of Criminal Prosecutions Against Pregnant Women and Appendix of Public Health and Public Interest Groups Opposed to These Prosecutions . New York, NY: American Civil Liberties Union Reproductive Freedom Project; 1990;. Memorandum.
54 +
Chasnoff I, Landress H, Barrett M.  The prevalence of illicit drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. N Engl J Med . 1990;;322:1202-1206.
55 +
Chavkin W, Paone D. An Evaluative Study of the Efficacy and Availability of Treatment Programs for Pregnant, Crack/Cocaine-Dependent Women . New York, NY: March of Dimes; 1991;.
56 +
International Union v Johnson Controls Inc, 886 F2nd 871 (7th Cir 1989), cert granted US (1990).
57 +
Hatch M.  Mother, father, worker: men and women and the reproductive risks of work in double exposure.  In: Chavkin W, ed. Women's Health Hazards on the Job and at Home . New York, NY: Monthly Review Press; 1984;:161-179.
58 +
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs May Harm the Unborn . Washington, DC: Office for Substance Abuse Prevention; 1990;. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 90-1711.
59 +
US General Accounting Office.Drug-Exposed Infants: A Generation at Risk . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1990;. Publication GAO/HRD90138.
60 +
Reed B, Moise R.  Implications for treatment and future research in addicted women.  In: Family Dynamics, Self-Perception, and Support System . Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1979;:114-130. US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare publication (ADM) 80-7622.
61 +
Platt JJ, Buhringer G, Kaplan CD, et al.  The prospects and limitations of compulsory treatment for drug addiction. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:505-525.
62 +
Porter L, Arif A, Curran WJ. The Law and the Treatment of Drug and Alcohol Dependent Persons: A Comparative Study of Existing Legislation . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1986;.
63 +
Root MPP.  Treatment failures: the role of sexual victimization in women's addictive behavior. Am J Orthopsychiatry . 1989;;59:542-549.

Figures

Tables

Interactive Graphics

Video

Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Frank B, Hopkins W, Marel R. Current Drug Use Trends in New York City . New York: New York State Division of Substance Abuse Services; April 1990;.
2 +
Habel L, Kaye K, Lee J, et al. Trends in reporting of maternal substance use in New York City. Presented at the American Public Health Association annual meeting; November 14,1988; Boston, Mass.
3 +
Paltrow L. Case Overview of Arguments Against Permitting Forced Surgery, Prosecution of Pregnant Women or Civil Sanctions Against Them for Conduct or Status During Pregnancy . New York, NY: American Civil Liberties Union Reproductive Freedom Project; 1989;. Memorandum.
4 +
Moore KG, ed. Substance Abuse and Pregnancy: State Lawmakers Respond With Punitive and Public Health Measures . Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 1990;:9.
5 +
Leukefeld CG, Tims FM.  Compulsory treatment: a review of findings.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:236-249. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
6 +
Anglin MD.  The efficacy of civil commitment in treating narcotic addiction.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:8-34. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
7 +
Barry E.  Pregnant prisoners. Harvard Wom Law J . 1989;;12:198-205.
8 +
Inciardi JA.  Some considerations on the clinical efficacy of compulsory treatment: reviewing the New York experience.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:126-138. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
9 +
Winick C.  Some policy implications of the New York State civil commitment program. J Drug Issues . 1988;;19:561-574.
10 +
Foster-Cook L, Weinman BA.  Treatment alternatives to street crime.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:99-105. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
11 +
Hubbard RL, Collins JJ, Valley RJ, et al.  The criminal justice client in drug abuse treatment.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:56-88. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
12 +
Bureau of Justice Assistance.Guidelines for Implementing and Operating Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime . Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice; 1988;.
13 +
Simpson D, Wayne D, Friend HJ.  Legal status and long-term outcomes for addicts in the DARP follow-up project.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:81-98. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
14 +
DeLeon G.  Legal pressure in therapeutic communities.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:160-177. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89-1578. Research Monograph Series.
15 +
Moise R, Reed B, Conell C.  Women in drug abuse treatment programs: factors that influence retention at very early and later stages in two treatment modalities: a summary. Int J Addict . 1981;;16:1295-1300.
16 +
State by State Survey of Civil Commitment Statutes . Washington, DC: Legal Action Center; 1990;.
17 +
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice.Task Force Report: Narcotics and Drug Abuse . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1967;.
18 +
Maddux JF.  Clinical experience with civil commitment.  In: Leukefeld CG, Tims FM, eds. Compulsory Treatment of Drug Abuse: Research and Clinical Practice . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1988;:35-56. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 89- 1578. Research Monograph Series.
19 +
Mass Annotated Laws ch 123, §35.
20 +
McCarty D, Argeriou M.  Rearrest following residential treatment for repeat offender drunken drivers. J Stud Alcohol . 1986;;49:1-6.
21 +
Holden RT.  Rehabilitative sanctions for drunk driving: an experimental evaluation. J Res Crime Delinquency . 1983;;20:55-72.
22 +
Ben-Aries 0, Swartz L, George GC.  The compulsory treatment of alcoholic drunken drivers referred by the courts: a seven- to nine-year outcome study. Int J Law Psychiatry . 1986;;8:31-43.
23 +
Gurnack AM.  Rehabilitation outcomes for alcohol-impaired drivers referred for assessment in two Wisconsin counties. J Alcohol Drug Educ . 1989;;35:45-59.
24 +
Fizeck LS, Zare N.  Factors affecting referrals from employee assistance programs to community agencies. Employee Assistance Q . 1988;;4:31-43.
25 +
Masi PA, Boyle P.  An evening and weekend treatment program for alcoholism in the workplace. Employee Assistance Q . 1987;;12:33-39.
26 +
Gernstein DR, Harwood HJ, eds. Institute of Medicine: Treating Drug Problems, I . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1990;.
27 +
Irueste-Montes AM, Montes F.  Court-ordered versus voluntary treatment of abusive and neglectful parents. J Child Abuse Neglect . 1988;;12:33-39.
28 +
Famularo R, Kinschuff R, Bunshaft O, et al.  Parental compliance to court-ordered treatment interventions in cases of child maltreatment. J Child Abuse Neglect . 1989;;13:507-514.
29 +
Newman RG.  The argument against long-term addiction treatment in prison. Drug Forum . 1977;;5:1976-1977.
30 +
Newman RG.  Involuntary treatment of drug addiction. Yale Rev Law Social Action . 1973;;3:246-253.
31 +
Chavkin W.  Drug addiction and pregnancy: policy crossroads. Am J Public Health . 1990;;80:483-487.
32 +
Beschner GM, Thompson P. Women and Drug Abuse Treatment: Needs and Services . Rockville, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1981;. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 84-1057. Research Monograph Series.
33 +
Brown SS, ed. Children and Parental Illicit Drug Use: Research, Clinical, and Policy Issues . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1991;.
34 +
Rubenstein LS.  Treatment of the mentally ill: legal advocacy enters the second generation. Am J Psychiatry . 1986;;143:1264-1269.
35 +
Newman RG.  Special problems of government-controlled methadone maintenance programs. Contemp Drug Probl . 1972;;1:183-190.
36 +
Schottenfeld RS.  Involuntary treatment of substance abuse disorders: impediments to success. Psychiatry . 1989;;52:164-175.
37 +
Pompi KF, Resnick J.  Retention of court-referred adolescents and young adults in the therapeutic community. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse . 1987;;13:309-325.
38 +
Johnson v State of Florida, Dis Ct Appeal (5th Dis) Fla 89-1765.
39 +
Chavkin W.  Jennifer Johnson's sentence. J Clin Ethics . 1991;;1:140-141.
40 +
Chavkin W, St Clair D.  Beyond prenatal care: a comprehensive vision of reproductive health. J Am Med Wom Assoc . 1990;;45:55-57.
41 +
American Medical Association Board of Trustees Report. Legal interventions during pregnancy: court-ordered medical treatments and legal penalties for potentially harmful behavior by pregnant women. JAMA . 1990;;264:2663-2670.
42 +
Lawrence Robinson v California, 370 US 660, 8L ed 2d 758, 82 S Ct 1417 (No. 554).
43 +
Paltrow L.  When becoming pregnant is a crime. Criminal Justice Ethics . (Winter) /spring 1990;:41-47.
44 +
Moss K.  Recent developments: substance abuse during pregnancy. Harvard Worn Law J . 1990;;13:278-285.
45 +
Brown BS.  Civil commitment: an international perspective. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:663-678.
46 +
Rosenthal MP.  The constitutionality of involuntary civil commitment of opiate addicts. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:641-662.
47 +
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Statement. Patient choice: maternal-fetal conflict. Worn Health Issues . (Fall) 1990;;1:13-15.
48 +
American Medical Association Board of Trustees Report. Legal interventions during pregnancy. JAMA . 1990;;264:2663-2670.
49 +
McNulty M.  Pregnancy police: the health policy and legal implications of punishing pregnant women for harm to their fetuses. Rev Law Social Change . 1987;/1988;16:277-319.
50 +
Allen A.  An affirmation of ACOG committee opinion. Worn Health Issues . (Fall) 1990;;1:37-40.
51 +
Mariner WK, Glantz LH, Arnes GJ.  Pregnancy, drugs and the perils of prosecution. Criminal Justice Ethics . (Winter) /Spring 1990;:30-41.
52 +
Kolder V, Gallagher J, Parsons M.  Court-ordered obstetrical interventions. N Engl J Med . 1987;;316:1192-1196.
53 +
Paltrow L, Shende S. State by State Summary of Criminal Prosecutions Against Pregnant Women and Appendix of Public Health and Public Interest Groups Opposed to These Prosecutions . New York, NY: American Civil Liberties Union Reproductive Freedom Project; 1990;. Memorandum.
54 +
Chasnoff I, Landress H, Barrett M.  The prevalence of illicit drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. N Engl J Med . 1990;;322:1202-1206.
55 +
Chavkin W, Paone D. An Evaluative Study of the Efficacy and Availability of Treatment Programs for Pregnant, Crack/Cocaine-Dependent Women . New York, NY: March of Dimes; 1991;.
56 +
International Union v Johnson Controls Inc, 886 F2nd 871 (7th Cir 1989), cert granted US (1990).
57 +
Hatch M.  Mother, father, worker: men and women and the reproductive risks of work in double exposure.  In: Chavkin W, ed. Women's Health Hazards on the Job and at Home . New York, NY: Monthly Review Press; 1984;:161-179.
58 +
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs May Harm the Unborn . Washington, DC: Office for Substance Abuse Prevention; 1990;. US Dept of Health and Human Services publication (ADM) 90-1711.
59 +
US General Accounting Office.Drug-Exposed Infants: A Generation at Risk . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1990;. Publication GAO/HRD90138.
60 +
Reed B, Moise R.  Implications for treatment and future research in addicted women.  In: Family Dynamics, Self-Perception, and Support System . Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1979;:114-130. US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare publication (ADM) 80-7622.
61 +
Platt JJ, Buhringer G, Kaplan CD, et al.  The prospects and limitations of compulsory treatment for drug addiction. J Drug Issues . 1988;;18:505-525.
62 +
Porter L, Arif A, Curran WJ. The Law and the Treatment of Drug and Alcohol Dependent Persons: A Comparative Study of Existing Legislation . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1986;.
63 +
Root MPP.  Treatment failures: the role of sexual victimization in women's addictive behavior. Am J Orthopsychiatry . 1989;;59:542-549.

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