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April 21, 1989, Vol 261, No. 15 >
ARTICLE | April 21, 1989

Dyslexia FREE

[+] Author Affiliations

This report is not intended to be construed or to serve as a standard of medical care. Standards of medical care are determined on the basis of all of the facts and circumstances involved in an individual case and are subject to change as scientific knowledge and technology advance patterns of practice evolve. These reports reflect the views of scientific literature as of December 1987.

Reprint requests to the Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association, 535 N Dearborn St, Chicago, IL 60610 (William R. Hendee, PhD).


JAMA. 1989;261(15):2236-2239. doi:10.1001/jama.1989.03420150086042
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Experts disagree on the etiology and definition of dyslexia. Neurological research is ongoing but is not yet conclusive. Specific educational techniques for diagnosis and remediation are available. Physicians can serve on multidisciplinary diagnostic teams and can act to support and provide informational resources to affected families.

(JAMA. 1989;261:2236-2239)

REFERENCES

1 +
Hinshelwood J:  Word-blindness and visual memory . Lancet 1985;;2:1564-1570.
2 +
Rutter M:  Prevalence and types of dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 3-28.
3 +
Critchley M: The Dyslexic Child . Springfield, Ill, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 1970;.
4 +
 Office of Education: Assistance to states for education of handicapped children, notice of proposed rulemaking . Federal Register 1976;;41( (Nov 29) ): 52404-52407.
5 +
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , ed 3, revised. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1987;.
6 +
Berger M, Yule W, Rutter M:  Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas: II. The prevalence of specific reading retardation . Br J Psychiatry 1975;;126:510-519.
7 +
Rutter M, Madge N: Cycles of Disadvantage: A Review of Research . London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1976;.
8 +
Hermann K: Reading Disability: A Medical Study of Word-Blindness and Related Handicaps . Copenhagen, Munksgaard International Publishers Inc, 1959;.
9 +
Finucci JM, Guthrie JT, Childs AT, et al:  The genetics of specific reading disability . Ann Hum Genet 1976;;40:1-23.
10 +
Hynd G, Cohen M: Dyslexia: Neuropsychological Theory, Research, and Clinical Differentiation . New York, Grune & Stratton, 1983;.
11 +
Silver LB:  Controversial approaches to treating learning disabilities and attention deficit disorder . AJDC 1986;;140:1045-1052.
12 +
Benton A:  Some conclusions about dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 451-476.
13 +
Pavlides GT:  Eye movements in dyslexia: Their diagnostic significance . J Learn Disabil 1985;;18:42-48.
14 +
Stein JF, Fowler S:  A physiologic theory of visual dyslexia . Adv Neurol 1984;;42:233-245.
15 +
Metzger RL, Werner DB:  Use of visual training for reading disabilities: A review . Pediatrics 1984;;73:824-829.
16 +
Gaddes WH: Learning Disabilities and Brain Function: A Neuropsychological Approach , ed 2. New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1985;.
17 +
Hier DB, LeMay M, Rosenberger PB, et al:  Developmental dyslexia: Evidence for a subgroup with a reversal of asymmetry . Arch Neurol 1978;;35:90-92.
18 +
Galaburda AM, Kemper TL:  Cytoarchitectonic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: A case study . Ann Neurol 1979;;6:94-100.
19 +
Galaburda AM, Sherman GF, Rosen GD, et al:  Developmental dyslexia: Four consecutive patients with cortical anomalies . Ann Neurol 1985;;18:222-223.
20 +
Geschwind N, Galaburda AM:  Cerebral lateralization. Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology: A hypothesis and a program for research . Arch Neurol 1985;;42:428-459,521-552, 634-654.
21 +
Pennington BF, Smith SD, Kimberling WJ, et al.  Left-handedness and immune disorders in familial dyslexics . Arch Neurol 1987;;44:634-639.
22 +
Duffy FH, Burchfiel JL, Lombroso CT:  Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM): A method for extending the clinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data . Ann Neurol 1979;;5:309-321.
23 +
Duffy FH, Denckla MD, Bartels PH, et al:  Dyslexia: Regional differences in brain electrical activity by topographic mapping . Ann Neurol 1980;;7:412-420.
24 +
Duffy FH, Denckla MD, Bartels PH, et al:  Dyslexia: Automated diagnoses by computerized classification of brain electrical activity . Ann Neurol 1980;;7:421-428.
25 +
Orton ST: Reading, Writing and Speech Problems in Children . New York, WW Norton & Co, 1937;.
26 +
Geiger G, Lettvin JY:  Peripheral vision in persons with dyslexia . N Engl J Med 1987;;316:1238-1243.
27 +
Shaywitz BA, Waxman SG:  Dyslexia . N Engl J Med 1987;;316:1268-1270.
28 +
Birch HG, Belmont L:  Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers . Am J Orthopsychiatry 1964;;34:852-861.
29 +
Birch HG, Belmont L:  Auditory-visual integration, intelligence, and reading ability in school children . Percept Mot Skills 1965;;20:295-305.
30 +
Bakker DJ: Temporal Order in Disturbed Reading . Rotterdam, the Netherlands, University Press, 1972;.
31 +
Wepman J:  The perceptual basis for learning , in Robinson HM (ed): Meeting Individual Differences in Reading . University of Chicago Press, 1964;.
32 +
Myklebust HR, Johnson DJ:  Dyslexia in children . Except Child 1962;;29:14-25.
33 +
Boder E:  Developmental dyslexia: Prevailing diagnostic concepts and new diagnostic approaches , in Mykelbust H (ed): Progress in Learning Disabilities . New York, Grune & Stratton, 1971;, pp 293-321.
34 +
Mosse L: The Complete Handbook of Children's Reading Disorders: A Critical Evaluation of their Clinical, Educational, and Social Dimensions . New York, Human Sciences Press, 1982;.
35 +
Mattis S, French JH, Rapin I:  Dyslexia in children and young adults: Three independent neuropsychological syndromes . Dev Med Child Neurol 1975;;17:150-163.
36 +
Temple C:  New approaches to the developmental dyslexias . Adv Neurol 1984;;42:223-232.
37 +
 Public Law 94-142: Rules and regulations . Federal Register 1977;;42:65083.
38 +
Bruck M:  The primary characteristics of dyslexic children . Can J Public Health 1986;;77:59-64.
39 +
Zigmond N:  Remediation of dyslexia: A discussion , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 435-448.
40 +
Silver A:  Prevention , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 349-376.
41 +
Policy Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision . San Francisco, American Academy of Ophthalmology, 1984;.
42 +
Kline C, Kline C:  Follow-up of 216 dyslexic children . Bull Orton Soc 1975;;25:127-144.
43 +
Fernald G: Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects . New York, McGraw-Hill International Book Co, 1943;.
44 +
Johnson DJ:  Remedial approaches to dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 397-421.
45 +
Bannatyne A:  The color phonics system , in Money J, Schiffman G (eds): The Disabled Reader . Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966;.
46 +
Gattegno C, Hinman D:  Words in color , in Money J, Schiffman G (eds): The Disabled Reader . Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966;.
47 +
Vernon MD: Reading and Its Difficulties . Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, 1971;.
48 +
Chall J: Learning to Read: The Great Debate . New York, McGraw-Hill International Book Co, 1967;.
49 +
Wilsher C, Atkins G, Mansfield P:  Effect of piracetam on dyslexics' reading ability . J Learn Disabil 1985;;18:19-25.
50 +
Tallal P, Chase C, Russell G, et al:  Evaluation of the efficacy of piracetam in treating information processing, reading, and writing disorders in dyslexic children . Int J Psychophysiol 1986;;28:154-168.
51 +
Gurry DL:  Dyslexia: The rise and fall . Aust Fam Physician 1985;;14:933-936.

Figures

Tables

Interactive Graphics

Video

Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Hinshelwood J:  Word-blindness and visual memory . Lancet 1985;;2:1564-1570.
2 +
Rutter M:  Prevalence and types of dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 3-28.
3 +
Critchley M: The Dyslexic Child . Springfield, Ill, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 1970;.
4 +
 Office of Education: Assistance to states for education of handicapped children, notice of proposed rulemaking . Federal Register 1976;;41( (Nov 29) ): 52404-52407.
5 +
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , ed 3, revised. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1987;.
6 +
Berger M, Yule W, Rutter M:  Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas: II. The prevalence of specific reading retardation . Br J Psychiatry 1975;;126:510-519.
7 +
Rutter M, Madge N: Cycles of Disadvantage: A Review of Research . London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1976;.
8 +
Hermann K: Reading Disability: A Medical Study of Word-Blindness and Related Handicaps . Copenhagen, Munksgaard International Publishers Inc, 1959;.
9 +
Finucci JM, Guthrie JT, Childs AT, et al:  The genetics of specific reading disability . Ann Hum Genet 1976;;40:1-23.
10 +
Hynd G, Cohen M: Dyslexia: Neuropsychological Theory, Research, and Clinical Differentiation . New York, Grune & Stratton, 1983;.
11 +
Silver LB:  Controversial approaches to treating learning disabilities and attention deficit disorder . AJDC 1986;;140:1045-1052.
12 +
Benton A:  Some conclusions about dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 451-476.
13 +
Pavlides GT:  Eye movements in dyslexia: Their diagnostic significance . J Learn Disabil 1985;;18:42-48.
14 +
Stein JF, Fowler S:  A physiologic theory of visual dyslexia . Adv Neurol 1984;;42:233-245.
15 +
Metzger RL, Werner DB:  Use of visual training for reading disabilities: A review . Pediatrics 1984;;73:824-829.
16 +
Gaddes WH: Learning Disabilities and Brain Function: A Neuropsychological Approach , ed 2. New York, Springer-Verlag NY Inc, 1985;.
17 +
Hier DB, LeMay M, Rosenberger PB, et al:  Developmental dyslexia: Evidence for a subgroup with a reversal of asymmetry . Arch Neurol 1978;;35:90-92.
18 +
Galaburda AM, Kemper TL:  Cytoarchitectonic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: A case study . Ann Neurol 1979;;6:94-100.
19 +
Galaburda AM, Sherman GF, Rosen GD, et al:  Developmental dyslexia: Four consecutive patients with cortical anomalies . Ann Neurol 1985;;18:222-223.
20 +
Geschwind N, Galaburda AM:  Cerebral lateralization. Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology: A hypothesis and a program for research . Arch Neurol 1985;;42:428-459,521-552, 634-654.
21 +
Pennington BF, Smith SD, Kimberling WJ, et al.  Left-handedness and immune disorders in familial dyslexics . Arch Neurol 1987;;44:634-639.
22 +
Duffy FH, Burchfiel JL, Lombroso CT:  Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM): A method for extending the clinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data . Ann Neurol 1979;;5:309-321.
23 +
Duffy FH, Denckla MD, Bartels PH, et al:  Dyslexia: Regional differences in brain electrical activity by topographic mapping . Ann Neurol 1980;;7:412-420.
24 +
Duffy FH, Denckla MD, Bartels PH, et al:  Dyslexia: Automated diagnoses by computerized classification of brain electrical activity . Ann Neurol 1980;;7:421-428.
25 +
Orton ST: Reading, Writing and Speech Problems in Children . New York, WW Norton & Co, 1937;.
26 +
Geiger G, Lettvin JY:  Peripheral vision in persons with dyslexia . N Engl J Med 1987;;316:1238-1243.
27 +
Shaywitz BA, Waxman SG:  Dyslexia . N Engl J Med 1987;;316:1268-1270.
28 +
Birch HG, Belmont L:  Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers . Am J Orthopsychiatry 1964;;34:852-861.
29 +
Birch HG, Belmont L:  Auditory-visual integration, intelligence, and reading ability in school children . Percept Mot Skills 1965;;20:295-305.
30 +
Bakker DJ: Temporal Order in Disturbed Reading . Rotterdam, the Netherlands, University Press, 1972;.
31 +
Wepman J:  The perceptual basis for learning , in Robinson HM (ed): Meeting Individual Differences in Reading . University of Chicago Press, 1964;.
32 +
Myklebust HR, Johnson DJ:  Dyslexia in children . Except Child 1962;;29:14-25.
33 +
Boder E:  Developmental dyslexia: Prevailing diagnostic concepts and new diagnostic approaches , in Mykelbust H (ed): Progress in Learning Disabilities . New York, Grune & Stratton, 1971;, pp 293-321.
34 +
Mosse L: The Complete Handbook of Children's Reading Disorders: A Critical Evaluation of their Clinical, Educational, and Social Dimensions . New York, Human Sciences Press, 1982;.
35 +
Mattis S, French JH, Rapin I:  Dyslexia in children and young adults: Three independent neuropsychological syndromes . Dev Med Child Neurol 1975;;17:150-163.
36 +
Temple C:  New approaches to the developmental dyslexias . Adv Neurol 1984;;42:223-232.
37 +
 Public Law 94-142: Rules and regulations . Federal Register 1977;;42:65083.
38 +
Bruck M:  The primary characteristics of dyslexic children . Can J Public Health 1986;;77:59-64.
39 +
Zigmond N:  Remediation of dyslexia: A discussion , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 435-448.
40 +
Silver A:  Prevention , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 349-376.
41 +
Policy Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision . San Francisco, American Academy of Ophthalmology, 1984;.
42 +
Kline C, Kline C:  Follow-up of 216 dyslexic children . Bull Orton Soc 1975;;25:127-144.
43 +
Fernald G: Remedial Techniques in Basic School Subjects . New York, McGraw-Hill International Book Co, 1943;.
44 +
Johnson DJ:  Remedial approaches to dyslexia , in Benton AL, Pearl D: Dyslexia: An Appraisal of Current Knowledge . New York, Oxford University Press, 1978;, pp 397-421.
45 +
Bannatyne A:  The color phonics system , in Money J, Schiffman G (eds): The Disabled Reader . Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966;.
46 +
Gattegno C, Hinman D:  Words in color , in Money J, Schiffman G (eds): The Disabled Reader . Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966;.
47 +
Vernon MD: Reading and Its Difficulties . Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, 1971;.
48 +
Chall J: Learning to Read: The Great Debate . New York, McGraw-Hill International Book Co, 1967;.
49 +
Wilsher C, Atkins G, Mansfield P:  Effect of piracetam on dyslexics' reading ability . J Learn Disabil 1985;;18:19-25.
50 +
Tallal P, Chase C, Russell G, et al:  Evaluation of the efficacy of piracetam in treating information processing, reading, and writing disorders in dyslexic children . Int J Psychophysiol 1986;;28:154-168.
51 +
Gurry DL:  Dyslexia: The rise and fall . Aust Fam Physician 1985;;14:933-936.

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