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September 18, 1987, Vol 258, No. 11 >
ARTICLE | September 18, 1987

Social Barriers Faced by Adolescent Parents and Their Children FREE

Howard Spivak, MD; Michael Weitzman, MD
[+] Author Affiliations

Reprints not available.


JAMA. 1987;258(11):1500-1504. doi:10.1001/jama.1987.03400110082030
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Article
References

Pregnancy and childbearing are well recognized as having significant, long-term consequences for teenagers. Recent literature documents an array of negative outcomes for children born to adolescents, with a range of factors identified as contributing to the problems observed in these children. These include (1) the characteristics of those teenagers most likely to become parents, (2) the social and economic consequences of early childbearing, (3) the increased biologic vulnerability of children born to teenagers, and (4) the nature of parenting by teenagers. It has been acknowledged that adolescent parents tend to come from high-risk families, have poor academic achievement, and live in our most disadvantaged communities and therefore, biologic, economic, and behavioral factors contribute to the increased likelihood of teenagers having children who are vulnerable to physical and developmental problems. Teenaged parents face many obstacles to economic and social success, and these further influence the environment in which their children grow up. Adolescents also experience many difficulties in adjusting to parenthood and display a range of suboptimal parenting practices. Whereas some of these factors appear highly resistant to change, others have clear clinical, programmatic, and policy implications.

(JAMA 1987;258:1500-1504)

REFERENCES

1 +
Westoff CF, Calot G, Foster AD:  Teenage fertility in developed nations . Fam Plann Perspect 1983;;15:105.
2 +
Teenage Pregnancy: The Problem That Hasn't Gone Away . New York, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1981;.
3 +
Zelnick M, Kantner JF:  Sexual activity, contraceptive use and pregnancy among metro-politanarea teenagers . Fam Plann Perspect 1980;;12: 230-237.
4 +
Furstenberg FF Jr, Lincoln R, Menken J (eds): Teenage Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Childbearing . Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981; pp 163-300.
5 +
Furstenberg FF Jr, Brooks-Gunn J, Morgan S: Adolescent Mothers in Later Life . New York, Cambridge University Press, 1987;.
6 +
Babson G, Clarke N:  Relationship between infant death and maternal age . J Pediatr 1983;;103: 391-393.
7 +
Menken J:  The health and social consequences of teenage childbearing . Fam Plann Perspect 1972;;4: 45-53.
8 +
Oppel W, Royston A:  Teenage births: Some social, psychological, and physical sequelae . Am J Public Health 1971;;61:751-756.
9 +
Baldwin W, Cain V:  The children of teenage parents . Fam Plann Perspect 1980;;12:34-43.
10 +
Polit D: Effects of Family Size: A Critical Review of the Literature Since 1973 . Bethesda, Md, National Institutes of Health, 1982;.
11 +
Select Panel for the Promotion of Better Health: Better Health for Our Children: Environmental and Social Factors Influencing Health , publication (PHS) 79-55071. US Dept of Health and Human Services, 1981;, vol 3, pp 25-41.
12 +
Polit F: A Review of the Antecedents of Adolescent Sexuality, Contraception, and Pregnancy Outcomes . Jefferson City, Mo, Humanalysis Inc, 1985;.
13 +
Zongker C:  The self-concept of pregnant adolescent girls . Adolescence 1977;;12:477-488.
14 +
Shaffer D, Pettigrew A, Wolkind S, et al:  Psychiatric aspects of pregnancy in school girls: A review . Psychol Med 1978;;8:119-130.
15 +
Hogan DP, Kitagawa E:  The impact of social status, family structure, and neighborhood on the fertility of black adolescents . Am J Sociol 1985;;90: 825-855.
16 +
Egbunou L, Starfield B:  Child health and social status . Pediatrics 1982;;69:550-557.
17 +
McAnarney ER, Lawrence RA, Aten MJ, et al:  Adolescent mothers and their infants . Pediatrics 1984;;73:358-362.
18 +
Levine L, Garcia Coll CT, Oh W:  Determinants of mother-infant interaction in adolescent mothers . Pediatrics 1985;;75:23-29.
19 +
McAnarney EG, Lawrence RA, Ricciuti HN, et al:  Interactions of adolescent mothers and their 1-year-old children . Pediatrics 1986;;78:585-590.
20 +
Rolf JE, Fischer M, Hasazi J:  Assessing preventive interventions for multirisk preschoolers , in Goldstein MJ (ed): Preventive Intervention in Schizophrenia . Rockville, Md, National Institute of Mental Health, 1982;.
21 +
Lyons RK, Botein S, Grunebaum HU:  Reaching the hard to reach: Serving isolated and depressed mothers with infants in the community , in Cohler B, Musick J (eds): Intervention With Psychiatrically Disabled Parents and Their Young Children, New Directions for Mental Health Services , No. (24) . San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Inc Publishers, 1984;.
22 +
Grunebaum H, Cohler B, Kauffman C, et al:  Children of depressed and schizophrenic mothers . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 1978;;8:219-229.
23 +
Finklestein NW, Ramey CT:  Information from birth certificate data as a risk index for school failure . Am J Ment Defic 1980;;84:546-552.
24 +
Mercer JR:  Cultural diversity, mental retardation and assessment: The case for nonlabeling , in Mittler P (ed): Research to Practice in Mental Retardation , vol 1: Care and Intervention. Baltimore, University Press, 1977;.
25 +
Ramey CT, Finkelstein NW:  Psychosocial mental retardation: A biological and social coalescence , in Begab MJ, Haywood HC, Garber H (eds): Psychosocial Influences in Retarded Performance, vol I: Issues and Theories in Development . Austin, Tex, PRO-ED, 1981;, pp 65-92.
26 +
Card SS, Carter RV: Teenager Parenthood May Be Dangerous to Your Well-Being . Palo Alto, Calif, American Institutes for Research, 1978;.
27 +
Card J, Wise L:  Teenage mothers & teenage fathers: The impact of early childbearing on the parent's personal and professional lives . Fam Plann Perspect 1978;;10:199-205.
28 +
Gispert J, Falk R,  Sexual experimentation and pregnancy in young black adolescents . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;;126:459-466.
29 +
Kare F Jr, Lachenbruch P, Lipton D:  Motivational factors in abortion patients . Am J Psychiatry 1973;;130:290-293.
30 +
Goldsmith S, Gabrielson MO, Gabrielson I, et al:  Teenagers, sex and contraception . Fam Plann Perspect 1972;;4:32-38.
31 +
Pittman K: Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy: What Schools Can Do . Washington, DC, Children's Defense Fund's Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Clearinghouse, 1986;.
32 +
Magrab P, Danielson-Murphy J:  Adolescent pregnancy: A review . J Clin Child Psychol 1978;;8: 121-125.
33 +
McAnarney E:  Adolescent pregnancy: A national priority . AJDC 1978;;132:125-126.
34 +
Dott AB, Fort AA:  Medical and social factors affecting early teenage pregnancy . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;;125:532-536.
35 +
Blum RW, Goldhagen J:  Teenage pregnancy in perspective . Clin Pediatr 1981;;20:335.
36 +
Ryan F, Schneider J:  Teenage obstetric complications . Clin Obstet Gnyecol 1980;;23:17.
37 +
Weiner G, Milton T:  Demographic correlates of low birth weight . Am J Epidemiol 1970;;91:260.
38 +
Merrit TA, Lawrence RA, Naeye RL:  The infants of adolescent mothers . Pediatr Ann 1980;;9: 100-110.
39 +
Clark J:  Adolescent obstetrics: Obstetrics and sociologic implications . Clin Obstet Gynecol 1971;; 14:1026-1036.
40 +
Maire D:  Does abortion affect later pregnancies? Fam Plann Perspect 1979;;11:98-101.
41 +
Kaminetzky H, Langer A, Baker H, et al:  The effects of nutrition in teenage gravidas on pregnancy and the status of the neonate: I. A nutritional profile . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;;115:639-646.
42 +
Weigley E:  The pregnant adolescent: A review of instructional research and programs . J Am Diet Assoc 1975;;66:588-592.
43 +
Fielding J:  Adolescent pregnancy revisited . N Engl J Med 1978;;299:893-896.
44 +
Hansen C, Brown M, Trontell M:  Effects on pregnant adolescents of attending a special school . Am Diet Assoc 1976;;68:538-541.
45 +
McAnarney E, et al:  Obstetric, neonatal and psychosocial outcome of pregnant adolescents . Pediatrics 1978;;61:199-205.
46 +
Mellor S, Wright J:  Adolescent pregnancy . Practitioner 1975;;212:77-82.
47 +
Wells G, Briggs C, Brown R:  A comprehensive adolescent maternity program in a community hospital . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972;;113:511-523.
48 +
Zackler J, Andelman S, Bauer F:  The young adolescent as an obstetric risk . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969;;103:305-312.
49 +
Mercer RT, Hackley KC, Bostrom A:  Adolescent motherhood: Comparison of outcome with older mothers . Adolesc Health Care 1984;;5:7-13.
50 +
1982 National Survey of Family Growth . National Center for Health Statistics, 1982;.
51 +
Strobino D:  Health and medical consequences , in Hayes C, Hofferth S (eds): Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality Pregnancy and Childbearing . Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1987;, vol 2, chap 5.
52 +
Furstenberg F Jr:  The social consequences of teenage parenthood . Fam Plann Perspect 1976;;8: 148-164.
53 +
Moore K, Waite L:  Early childbearing and educational attainment . Fam Plann Perspect 1977;; 9:220-225.
54 +
Mott F, Marslglio W:  Early childbearing and completion of high school . Fam Plann Perspect 1985;;17:234-237.
55 +
Weitzman M, Klerman LV, Lamb G, et al:  School absence: A problem for the pediatrician . Pediatrics 1980;;65:208-220.
56 +
Haggstrom G, Blaschke T, Kanouse D, et al: Teenage Parents: Their Ambitions and Attainments . Santa Monica, Calif, The Rand Corp, 1981;.
57 +
Morrison P, Samulon M, Zellman G: Teenage Parenthood: A Review of Risks and Consequences . Santa Monica Calif, The Rand Corp, 1981;.
58 +
Trussell J, Menken J:  Early childbearing and subsequent fertility . Fam Plann Perspect 1978;;10: 209-218.
59 +
O'Connell M, Rogers CC:  Out-of-wedlock births, premarital pregnancies and their effects on family formation and dissolution . Fam Plann Perspect 1984;;16:157-170.
60 +
Moore K, Burt M: Private Crisis, Public Cost, Policy Perspectives on Teenage Childbearing . Washington, DC, The Urban Institute, 1982;.
61 +
Mott F, Maxwell N:  School-aged mothers: 1968 and 1979 . Fam Plann Perspect 1981;;13:287-292.
62 +
Bane M, Ellwood D: The Dynamics of Dependence; The Routes to Self-Sufficiency . Cambridge, Mass, Urban Systems Research and Engineering Inc, 1983;.
63 +
Blos P: On Adolescence . New York, Free Press, 1962;.
64 +
Erikson E: Identity, Youth and Crisis . New York, WW Norton & Co Inc, 1958;.
65 +
Freud A:  Adolescence . Psychoanal Study Child 1968;;13:255-278.
66 +
LeMasters F:  Parenthood as crisis . Marr Fam Living 1957;;19:4-12.
67 +
Sadler L, Catrone C:  The adolescent parent: A dual developmental crisis . J Adolesc Health Care 1983;;4:100-105.
68 +
Mercer R:  The adolescent parent , in Mercer R (ed): Perspectives on Adolescent Health Care . New York, JB Lippincott, 1979;, pp 348-383.
69 +
Levenson P, Atkinson B, Hale J, et al:  Adolescent parent education: A maturational model . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 1978;;9:104-118.
70 +
Schaffer C, Pine R:  Pregnancy, abortion and the developmental tasks of adolescence . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1972;;11:511-536.
71 +
Klaus H:  Experience with teenage pregnancy . Bull Am Coll Nurse-Midwives 1972;;17:114-121.
72 +
Cannon-Bonventre K, Kahn J:  Interviews with adolescent parents . Child Today 1979;;8:1719.
73 +
Weigle J:  Teaching child development to teenage mothers . Child Today 1974;;3:23-25.
74 +
Osofsky H, Osofsky J:  Adolescents as mothers: Results of a program for low-income pregnant teenagers with some emphasis upon infants' development . Am J Orthopsychiatry 1970;;40:825-834.
75 +
Gutelius M:  Childbearing attitudes of teenage Negro girls . Am J Public Health 1970;;60:93-104.
76 +
Egeland B, Brunnquell D:  An at-risk approach to the study of child abuse: Some preliminary findings . J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1979;;18:219-235.
77 +
Klinman D, Sander J: Reaching and Serving the Teenage Father . New York, Bank St College of Education, 1985;.
78 +
Polit D: Five-Year Follow-Up of Project Redirection Teen Mothers: Preliminary Findings . Jefferson City, Mo, Humanalysis Inc, 1986;.

Figures

Tables

Interactive Graphics

Video

Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Westoff CF, Calot G, Foster AD:  Teenage fertility in developed nations . Fam Plann Perspect 1983;;15:105.
2 +
Teenage Pregnancy: The Problem That Hasn't Gone Away . New York, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1981;.
3 +
Zelnick M, Kantner JF:  Sexual activity, contraceptive use and pregnancy among metro-politanarea teenagers . Fam Plann Perspect 1980;;12: 230-237.
4 +
Furstenberg FF Jr, Lincoln R, Menken J (eds): Teenage Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Childbearing . Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981; pp 163-300.
5 +
Furstenberg FF Jr, Brooks-Gunn J, Morgan S: Adolescent Mothers in Later Life . New York, Cambridge University Press, 1987;.
6 +
Babson G, Clarke N:  Relationship between infant death and maternal age . J Pediatr 1983;;103: 391-393.
7 +
Menken J:  The health and social consequences of teenage childbearing . Fam Plann Perspect 1972;;4: 45-53.
8 +
Oppel W, Royston A:  Teenage births: Some social, psychological, and physical sequelae . Am J Public Health 1971;;61:751-756.
9 +
Baldwin W, Cain V:  The children of teenage parents . Fam Plann Perspect 1980;;12:34-43.
10 +
Polit D: Effects of Family Size: A Critical Review of the Literature Since 1973 . Bethesda, Md, National Institutes of Health, 1982;.
11 +
Select Panel for the Promotion of Better Health: Better Health for Our Children: Environmental and Social Factors Influencing Health , publication (PHS) 79-55071. US Dept of Health and Human Services, 1981;, vol 3, pp 25-41.
12 +
Polit F: A Review of the Antecedents of Adolescent Sexuality, Contraception, and Pregnancy Outcomes . Jefferson City, Mo, Humanalysis Inc, 1985;.
13 +
Zongker C:  The self-concept of pregnant adolescent girls . Adolescence 1977;;12:477-488.
14 +
Shaffer D, Pettigrew A, Wolkind S, et al:  Psychiatric aspects of pregnancy in school girls: A review . Psychol Med 1978;;8:119-130.
15 +
Hogan DP, Kitagawa E:  The impact of social status, family structure, and neighborhood on the fertility of black adolescents . Am J Sociol 1985;;90: 825-855.
16 +
Egbunou L, Starfield B:  Child health and social status . Pediatrics 1982;;69:550-557.
17 +
McAnarney ER, Lawrence RA, Aten MJ, et al:  Adolescent mothers and their infants . Pediatrics 1984;;73:358-362.
18 +
Levine L, Garcia Coll CT, Oh W:  Determinants of mother-infant interaction in adolescent mothers . Pediatrics 1985;;75:23-29.
19 +
McAnarney EG, Lawrence RA, Ricciuti HN, et al:  Interactions of adolescent mothers and their 1-year-old children . Pediatrics 1986;;78:585-590.
20 +
Rolf JE, Fischer M, Hasazi J:  Assessing preventive interventions for multirisk preschoolers , in Goldstein MJ (ed): Preventive Intervention in Schizophrenia . Rockville, Md, National Institute of Mental Health, 1982;.
21 +
Lyons RK, Botein S, Grunebaum HU:  Reaching the hard to reach: Serving isolated and depressed mothers with infants in the community , in Cohler B, Musick J (eds): Intervention With Psychiatrically Disabled Parents and Their Young Children, New Directions for Mental Health Services , No. (24) . San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Inc Publishers, 1984;.
22 +
Grunebaum H, Cohler B, Kauffman C, et al:  Children of depressed and schizophrenic mothers . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 1978;;8:219-229.
23 +
Finklestein NW, Ramey CT:  Information from birth certificate data as a risk index for school failure . Am J Ment Defic 1980;;84:546-552.
24 +
Mercer JR:  Cultural diversity, mental retardation and assessment: The case for nonlabeling , in Mittler P (ed): Research to Practice in Mental Retardation , vol 1: Care and Intervention. Baltimore, University Press, 1977;.
25 +
Ramey CT, Finkelstein NW:  Psychosocial mental retardation: A biological and social coalescence , in Begab MJ, Haywood HC, Garber H (eds): Psychosocial Influences in Retarded Performance, vol I: Issues and Theories in Development . Austin, Tex, PRO-ED, 1981;, pp 65-92.
26 +
Card SS, Carter RV: Teenager Parenthood May Be Dangerous to Your Well-Being . Palo Alto, Calif, American Institutes for Research, 1978;.
27 +
Card J, Wise L:  Teenage mothers & teenage fathers: The impact of early childbearing on the parent's personal and professional lives . Fam Plann Perspect 1978;;10:199-205.
28 +
Gispert J, Falk R,  Sexual experimentation and pregnancy in young black adolescents . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;;126:459-466.
29 +
Kare F Jr, Lachenbruch P, Lipton D:  Motivational factors in abortion patients . Am J Psychiatry 1973;;130:290-293.
30 +
Goldsmith S, Gabrielson MO, Gabrielson I, et al:  Teenagers, sex and contraception . Fam Plann Perspect 1972;;4:32-38.
31 +
Pittman K: Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy: What Schools Can Do . Washington, DC, Children's Defense Fund's Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Clearinghouse, 1986;.
32 +
Magrab P, Danielson-Murphy J:  Adolescent pregnancy: A review . J Clin Child Psychol 1978;;8: 121-125.
33 +
McAnarney E:  Adolescent pregnancy: A national priority . AJDC 1978;;132:125-126.
34 +
Dott AB, Fort AA:  Medical and social factors affecting early teenage pregnancy . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;;125:532-536.
35 +
Blum RW, Goldhagen J:  Teenage pregnancy in perspective . Clin Pediatr 1981;;20:335.
36 +
Ryan F, Schneider J:  Teenage obstetric complications . Clin Obstet Gnyecol 1980;;23:17.
37 +
Weiner G, Milton T:  Demographic correlates of low birth weight . Am J Epidemiol 1970;;91:260.
38 +
Merrit TA, Lawrence RA, Naeye RL:  The infants of adolescent mothers . Pediatr Ann 1980;;9: 100-110.
39 +
Clark J:  Adolescent obstetrics: Obstetrics and sociologic implications . Clin Obstet Gynecol 1971;; 14:1026-1036.
40 +
Maire D:  Does abortion affect later pregnancies? Fam Plann Perspect 1979;;11:98-101.
41 +
Kaminetzky H, Langer A, Baker H, et al:  The effects of nutrition in teenage gravidas on pregnancy and the status of the neonate: I. A nutritional profile . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;;115:639-646.
42 +
Weigley E:  The pregnant adolescent: A review of instructional research and programs . J Am Diet Assoc 1975;;66:588-592.
43 +
Fielding J:  Adolescent pregnancy revisited . N Engl J Med 1978;;299:893-896.
44 +
Hansen C, Brown M, Trontell M:  Effects on pregnant adolescents of attending a special school . Am Diet Assoc 1976;;68:538-541.
45 +
McAnarney E, et al:  Obstetric, neonatal and psychosocial outcome of pregnant adolescents . Pediatrics 1978;;61:199-205.
46 +
Mellor S, Wright J:  Adolescent pregnancy . Practitioner 1975;;212:77-82.
47 +
Wells G, Briggs C, Brown R:  A comprehensive adolescent maternity program in a community hospital . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972;;113:511-523.
48 +
Zackler J, Andelman S, Bauer F:  The young adolescent as an obstetric risk . Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969;;103:305-312.
49 +
Mercer RT, Hackley KC, Bostrom A:  Adolescent motherhood: Comparison of outcome with older mothers . Adolesc Health Care 1984;;5:7-13.
50 +
1982 National Survey of Family Growth . National Center for Health Statistics, 1982;.
51 +
Strobino D:  Health and medical consequences , in Hayes C, Hofferth S (eds): Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality Pregnancy and Childbearing . Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1987;, vol 2, chap 5.
52 +
Furstenberg F Jr:  The social consequences of teenage parenthood . Fam Plann Perspect 1976;;8: 148-164.
53 +
Moore K, Waite L:  Early childbearing and educational attainment . Fam Plann Perspect 1977;; 9:220-225.
54 +
Mott F, Marslglio W:  Early childbearing and completion of high school . Fam Plann Perspect 1985;;17:234-237.
55 +
Weitzman M, Klerman LV, Lamb G, et al:  School absence: A problem for the pediatrician . Pediatrics 1980;;65:208-220.
56 +
Haggstrom G, Blaschke T, Kanouse D, et al: Teenage Parents: Their Ambitions and Attainments . Santa Monica, Calif, The Rand Corp, 1981;.
57 +
Morrison P, Samulon M, Zellman G: Teenage Parenthood: A Review of Risks and Consequences . Santa Monica Calif, The Rand Corp, 1981;.
58 +
Trussell J, Menken J:  Early childbearing and subsequent fertility . Fam Plann Perspect 1978;;10: 209-218.
59 +
O'Connell M, Rogers CC:  Out-of-wedlock births, premarital pregnancies and their effects on family formation and dissolution . Fam Plann Perspect 1984;;16:157-170.
60 +
Moore K, Burt M: Private Crisis, Public Cost, Policy Perspectives on Teenage Childbearing . Washington, DC, The Urban Institute, 1982;.
61 +
Mott F, Maxwell N:  School-aged mothers: 1968 and 1979 . Fam Plann Perspect 1981;;13:287-292.
62 +
Bane M, Ellwood D: The Dynamics of Dependence; The Routes to Self-Sufficiency . Cambridge, Mass, Urban Systems Research and Engineering Inc, 1983;.
63 +
Blos P: On Adolescence . New York, Free Press, 1962;.
64 +
Erikson E: Identity, Youth and Crisis . New York, WW Norton & Co Inc, 1958;.
65 +
Freud A:  Adolescence . Psychoanal Study Child 1968;;13:255-278.
66 +
LeMasters F:  Parenthood as crisis . Marr Fam Living 1957;;19:4-12.
67 +
Sadler L, Catrone C:  The adolescent parent: A dual developmental crisis . J Adolesc Health Care 1983;;4:100-105.
68 +
Mercer R:  The adolescent parent , in Mercer R (ed): Perspectives on Adolescent Health Care . New York, JB Lippincott, 1979;, pp 348-383.
69 +
Levenson P, Atkinson B, Hale J, et al:  Adolescent parent education: A maturational model . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 1978;;9:104-118.
70 +
Schaffer C, Pine R:  Pregnancy, abortion and the developmental tasks of adolescence . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1972;;11:511-536.
71 +
Klaus H:  Experience with teenage pregnancy . Bull Am Coll Nurse-Midwives 1972;;17:114-121.
72 +
Cannon-Bonventre K, Kahn J:  Interviews with adolescent parents . Child Today 1979;;8:1719.
73 +
Weigle J:  Teaching child development to teenage mothers . Child Today 1974;;3:23-25.
74 +
Osofsky H, Osofsky J:  Adolescents as mothers: Results of a program for low-income pregnant teenagers with some emphasis upon infants' development . Am J Orthopsychiatry 1970;;40:825-834.
75 +
Gutelius M:  Childbearing attitudes of teenage Negro girls . Am J Public Health 1970;;60:93-104.
76 +
Egeland B, Brunnquell D:  An at-risk approach to the study of child abuse: Some preliminary findings . J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1979;;18:219-235.
77 +
Klinman D, Sander J: Reaching and Serving the Teenage Father . New York, Bank St College of Education, 1985;.
78 +
Polit D: Five-Year Follow-Up of Project Redirection Teen Mothers: Preliminary Findings . Jefferson City, Mo, Humanalysis Inc, 1986;.

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