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September 7, 1984, Vol 252, No. 9 >
ARTICLE | September 7, 1984

Influence of Hydration Level and Body Fluids on Exercise Performance in the Heat FREE

Michael N. Sawka, PhD; Ralph P. Francesconi, PhD; Andrew J. Young, PhD; Kent B. Pandolf, PhD
[+] Author Affiliations

Reprint requests to US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Kansas Street, Natick, MA 01760 (Dr Sawka).


JAMA. 1984;252(9):1165-1169. doi:10.1001/jama.1984.03350090041020
Text Size: A A A
Published online
Article
References

During exercise in the heat, sweat output often exceeds water intake, resulting in hypohydration, which is defined as a body fluid deficit. This fluid deficit is comprised of water loss from both the intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Hypohydration during exercise causes a greater heat storage and reduces endurance in comparison with euhydration levels. The greater heat storage is attributed to a decreased sweating rate (evaporative heat loss) as well as a decreased cutaneous blood flow (dry heat loss). These response decrements have been attributed to both plasma hyperosmolality and a plasma hypovolemia. Subject gender, acclimation state, and aerobic fitness do not alter the increased heat storage when hypohydrated. Hyperhydration, or body fluid excess, does not seem to provide a clear advantage during exercise-heat stress, but will delay the development of hypohydration.

(JAMA 1984;252:1165-1169)

REFERENCES

1 +
Pandolf KB:  Effects of physical training and cardiorespiratory physical fitness on exercise-heat tolerance: Recent observations . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:155-188.
2 +
Nadel ER, Pandolf KB, Roberts MF, et al:  Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat . J Appl Physiol 1974;;37:515-520.
3 +
Strydom NB, Holdsworth LD:  The effects of different levels of water deficit on physiological responses during heat stress . Int Z Angew Physiol 1968;;26:95-102.
4 +
Cadarette BS, Sawka MN, Toner MM, et al:  Aerobic fitness and the hypohydration response to exercise-heat stress . Aviat Space Environ Med 1984;;55:507-512.
5 +
Buskirk ER, Iampietro PF, Bass DE:  Work performance after dehydration: Effects of physical conditioning and heat acclimatization . J Appl Physiol 1958;;12:189-194.
6 +
Sawka MN, Toner MM, Francesconi RP, et al:  Hypohydration and exercise: Effects of heat acclimation, gender and environment . J Appl Physiol 1983;;55:1147-1153.
7 +
Greenleaf JE:  Hyperthermia and exercise , in Robertshaw D (ed): Environmental Physiology III . Baltimore, University Park Press, 1979;, vol 20, pp 157-208.
8 +
Nadel ER:  Control of sweating rate while exercising in the heat . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:31-35.
9 +
Wenger CB:  Heat of evaporation of sweat: Thermodynamic considerations . J Appl Physiol 1972;;32:456-459.
10 +
Adolph EF and Associates: Physiology of Man in the Desert . New York, Interscience, 1947;.
11 +
Molnar GW, Towbin EJ, Gosselin RE, et al:  A comparative study of water, salt and heat exchanges of men in tropical and desert environments . Am J Hyg 1946;;44:411-433.
12 +
Smith JH, Robinson S, Pearcy M:  Renal responses to exercise, heat and dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1952;;4:659-665.
13 +
Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Goldman RF:  Predicting sweat loss response to exercise, environment and clothing . Eur J Applied Physiol 1982;;48:83-96.
14 +
Wyndham CH, Strydom NB, Morrison JF, et al:  Fatigue of the sweat gland response . J Appl Physiol 1966;;21:107-110.
15 +
Eichna LW, Bean WB, Ashe WF:  Performance in relation to environmental temperature . Bull John Hopkins Hosp 1945;;76:25-58.
16 +
Pitts GC, Johnson RE, Consolazio FC:  Work in the heat as affected by intake of water, salt and glucose . Am J Physiol 1956;;142:253-259.
17 +
Greenleaf JE, Brock PJ, Keil LC, et al:  Drinking and water balance during exercise and heat acclimation . J Appl Physiol 1983;;54:414-419.
18 +
Costill DL, Cote R, Fink W:  Muscle water and electrolytes following varied levels of dehydration in man . J Appl Physiol 1976;;40:6-11.
19 +
Claremont AD, Costill DL, Fink W, et al:  Heat tolerance following diuretic induced dehydration . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1976;;8:239-243.
20 +
Gaebelein CJ, Senay LC:  Vascular volume changes during cycling and stepping in women at two hydration levels . Eur J Applied Physiol 1982;;48:1-10.
21 +
Gaebelein CJ, Senay LC:  Influence of exercise type, hydration, and heat on plasma volume shifts in men . J Appl Physiol 1980;;49:119-123.
22 +
Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Pimental NA, et al:  Hydration and vascular fluid shifts during exercise in heat . J Appl Physiol 1984;;56:91-96.
23 +
Fortney SM, Nadel ER, Wenger CB, et al:  Effect of blood volume on sweating rate and body fluids in exercising humans . J Appl Physiol 1981;;51:1594-1600.
24 +
Sato K:  The physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry of the eccrine sweat gland . Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 1977;;79:51-131.
25 +
Senay LC, Christensen ML:  Changes in blood plasma during progressive dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1965;;20:1136-1140.
26 +
Fortney S, Wenger CB, Bove JR, et al:  Effect of plasma osmolality on peripheral blood flow and body sweating during exercise , abstracted. Fed Proc 1982;;41:1348.
27 +
Senay LC:  Temperature regulation and hypohydration: A singular view . J Appl Physiol 1979;;47:1-7.
28 +
Nadel ER, Fortney SM, Wenger CB:  Effect of hydration state on circulatory and thermal regulations . J Appl Physiol 1980;;49:715-721.
29 +
Guyton AC, Taylor AE, Granger HJ: Circulatory Physiology II: Dynamics and Control of the Body Fluids . Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1975;.
30 +
Severs WB, Summy-Long J, Daniels-Severs A:  Angiotensin interaction with thirst mechanisms . Am J Physiol 1974;;226:340-344.
31 +
Mann JFE, Johnson AK, Ganten D:  Plasma angiotensin II: Dipsogenic levels and angiotensin-generating capacity of renin . Am J Physiol 1980;;238:R372-R377.
32 +
Follenius M, Brandenberger G, Reinhardt B, et al:  Plasma aldosterone, renin activity, and cortisol responses to heat exposure in sodium depleted and repleted subjects . Eur J Applied Physiol 1979;;41:41-50.
33 +
Convertino VA, Greenleaf JE, Bernauer EM:  Role of the thermal and exercise factors in the mechanism of hypervolemia . J Appl Physiol 1980;;48:657-664.
34 +
Kosunen KJ, Pakarinen AJ, Kuoppasalmi K, et al:  Plasma renin activity, angiotensin II, and aldosterone during intense heat stress . J Appl Physiol 1976;;41:323-327.
35 +
Kosunen KJ, Pakarinen AJ:  Plasma renin, angiotensin II, and plasma and urinary aldosterone in running exercise . J Appl Physiol 1976;; 41:26-29.
36 +
Geyssant A, Geelen G, Denis C, et al:  Plasma vasopressin, renin activity, and aldosterone: effect of exercise and training . Eur J Applied Physiol 1981;;46:21-30.
37 +
Melin B, Eclache JP, Geelen G, et al:  Plasma AVP, neurophysin, renin activity, and aldosterone during submaximal exercise performed until exhaustion in trained and untrained men . Eur J Applied Physiol 1980;;44:141-151.
38 +
Francesconi RP, Sawka MN, Pandolf KB:  Hypohydration and heat acclimation: Plasma renin and aldosterone during exercise . J Appl Physiol 1983;;55:1790-1794.
39 +
Francesconi RP, Sawka MN, Hubbard RW, et al:  Acute albumin-induced plasma volume expansion and exercise in the heat: Effects on hormonal responses in men . Eur J Applied Physiol 1983;;51:121-128.
40 +
Swamy W, Pichan G, Nayar HS:  Effects of body dehydration on soldiers during military operations in heat , in Proceedings: Thirteenth Commonwealth Defence Conference on Operational Clothing and Combat Equipment , 1981;, pp 1-8.
41 +
Hertzman AB, Ferguson ID:  Failure in temperature regulation during progressive dehydration . US Armed Forces Med J 1960;;11:542-560.
42 +
Myhre LG, Robinson S:  Fluid shifts during thermal stress with and without fluid replacement . J Appl Physiol 1977;;42:252-256.
43 +
Horstman DH, Horvath SM:  Cardiovascular and temperature regulatory changes during progressive dehydration and euhydration . J Appl Physiol 1972;;33:446-450.
44 +
Moroff SV, Bass DE:  Effects of overhydration on man's physiological responses to work in the heat . J Appl Physiol 1965;;20:267-270.
45 +
Senay LC:  Relationship of evaporative rates to serum Na+, K+ and osmolarity in acute heat stress . J Appl Physiol 1968;;25:149-152.
46 +
Strydom NB, Wyndham CH, van Graan CH, et al:  The influence of water restriction on the performance of men during a prolonged march . S Afr Med J 1966;;40:539-544.
47 +
Greenleaf JE, Castle BL:  Exercise temperature regulation in man during hypohydration and hyperhydration . J Appl Physiol 1971;;30:847-853.
48 +
Gisolfi CV, Copping JR:  Thermal effects of prolonged treadmill exercise in the heat . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1974;;6:108-113.
49 +
Nielsen B, Hansen G, Jorgensen SO, et al:  Thermoregulation and exercising man during dehydration and hyperhydration with water and saline . Int J Biometeorol 1971;;15:195-200.
50 +
Pearcy M, Robinson S, Miller DI, et al:  Effects of dehydration, salt depletion and pitressin on sweat rate and urine flow . J Appl Physiol 1956;;8:621-626.
51 +
Harrison MH, Edwards RJ, Fennessy PA:  Intravascular volume and tonicity as factors in the regulation of body temperature . J Appl Physiol 1978;;44:69-75.
52 +
Saltin B:  Circulatory response to submaximal and maximal exercise after thermal dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1964;;19:1125-1132.
53 +
Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Critz JB:  Thermal and circulatory responses to repeated bouts of prolonged running . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:177-180.
54 +
Rowell LB:  Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress . Physiol Rev 1974;;54:75-159.
55 +
Saltin B:  Aerobic and anaerobic work capacity after dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1964;; 19:1114-1118.
56 +
Craig FN, Cummings EG:  Dehydration and muscular work . J Appl Physiol 1966;;21:670-674.
57 +
Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Glaser RM, et al:  Effect of prolonged running on physiological responses to subsequent exercise . J Hum Ergol 1979;;8:83-90.
58 +
Senay LC, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH:  Acclimation in a hot, humid environment: Body fluid adjustments . J Appl Physiol 1976;;40:786-796.
59 +
Sawka MN, Hubbard RW, Francesconi RP, et al:  Effects of acute plasma volume expansion on altering exercise-heat performance . Eur J Applied Physiol 1983;;51:303-312.

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Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

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1 +
Pandolf KB:  Effects of physical training and cardiorespiratory physical fitness on exercise-heat tolerance: Recent observations . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:155-188.
2 +
Nadel ER, Pandolf KB, Roberts MF, et al:  Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat . J Appl Physiol 1974;;37:515-520.
3 +
Strydom NB, Holdsworth LD:  The effects of different levels of water deficit on physiological responses during heat stress . Int Z Angew Physiol 1968;;26:95-102.
4 +
Cadarette BS, Sawka MN, Toner MM, et al:  Aerobic fitness and the hypohydration response to exercise-heat stress . Aviat Space Environ Med 1984;;55:507-512.
5 +
Buskirk ER, Iampietro PF, Bass DE:  Work performance after dehydration: Effects of physical conditioning and heat acclimatization . J Appl Physiol 1958;;12:189-194.
6 +
Sawka MN, Toner MM, Francesconi RP, et al:  Hypohydration and exercise: Effects of heat acclimation, gender and environment . J Appl Physiol 1983;;55:1147-1153.
7 +
Greenleaf JE:  Hyperthermia and exercise , in Robertshaw D (ed): Environmental Physiology III . Baltimore, University Park Press, 1979;, vol 20, pp 157-208.
8 +
Nadel ER:  Control of sweating rate while exercising in the heat . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:31-35.
9 +
Wenger CB:  Heat of evaporation of sweat: Thermodynamic considerations . J Appl Physiol 1972;;32:456-459.
10 +
Adolph EF and Associates: Physiology of Man in the Desert . New York, Interscience, 1947;.
11 +
Molnar GW, Towbin EJ, Gosselin RE, et al:  A comparative study of water, salt and heat exchanges of men in tropical and desert environments . Am J Hyg 1946;;44:411-433.
12 +
Smith JH, Robinson S, Pearcy M:  Renal responses to exercise, heat and dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1952;;4:659-665.
13 +
Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Goldman RF:  Predicting sweat loss response to exercise, environment and clothing . Eur J Applied Physiol 1982;;48:83-96.
14 +
Wyndham CH, Strydom NB, Morrison JF, et al:  Fatigue of the sweat gland response . J Appl Physiol 1966;;21:107-110.
15 +
Eichna LW, Bean WB, Ashe WF:  Performance in relation to environmental temperature . Bull John Hopkins Hosp 1945;;76:25-58.
16 +
Pitts GC, Johnson RE, Consolazio FC:  Work in the heat as affected by intake of water, salt and glucose . Am J Physiol 1956;;142:253-259.
17 +
Greenleaf JE, Brock PJ, Keil LC, et al:  Drinking and water balance during exercise and heat acclimation . J Appl Physiol 1983;;54:414-419.
18 +
Costill DL, Cote R, Fink W:  Muscle water and electrolytes following varied levels of dehydration in man . J Appl Physiol 1976;;40:6-11.
19 +
Claremont AD, Costill DL, Fink W, et al:  Heat tolerance following diuretic induced dehydration . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1976;;8:239-243.
20 +
Gaebelein CJ, Senay LC:  Vascular volume changes during cycling and stepping in women at two hydration levels . Eur J Applied Physiol 1982;;48:1-10.
21 +
Gaebelein CJ, Senay LC:  Influence of exercise type, hydration, and heat on plasma volume shifts in men . J Appl Physiol 1980;;49:119-123.
22 +
Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Pimental NA, et al:  Hydration and vascular fluid shifts during exercise in heat . J Appl Physiol 1984;;56:91-96.
23 +
Fortney SM, Nadel ER, Wenger CB, et al:  Effect of blood volume on sweating rate and body fluids in exercising humans . J Appl Physiol 1981;;51:1594-1600.
24 +
Sato K:  The physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry of the eccrine sweat gland . Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 1977;;79:51-131.
25 +
Senay LC, Christensen ML:  Changes in blood plasma during progressive dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1965;;20:1136-1140.
26 +
Fortney S, Wenger CB, Bove JR, et al:  Effect of plasma osmolality on peripheral blood flow and body sweating during exercise , abstracted. Fed Proc 1982;;41:1348.
27 +
Senay LC:  Temperature regulation and hypohydration: A singular view . J Appl Physiol 1979;;47:1-7.
28 +
Nadel ER, Fortney SM, Wenger CB:  Effect of hydration state on circulatory and thermal regulations . J Appl Physiol 1980;;49:715-721.
29 +
Guyton AC, Taylor AE, Granger HJ: Circulatory Physiology II: Dynamics and Control of the Body Fluids . Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1975;.
30 +
Severs WB, Summy-Long J, Daniels-Severs A:  Angiotensin interaction with thirst mechanisms . Am J Physiol 1974;;226:340-344.
31 +
Mann JFE, Johnson AK, Ganten D:  Plasma angiotensin II: Dipsogenic levels and angiotensin-generating capacity of renin . Am J Physiol 1980;;238:R372-R377.
32 +
Follenius M, Brandenberger G, Reinhardt B, et al:  Plasma aldosterone, renin activity, and cortisol responses to heat exposure in sodium depleted and repleted subjects . Eur J Applied Physiol 1979;;41:41-50.
33 +
Convertino VA, Greenleaf JE, Bernauer EM:  Role of the thermal and exercise factors in the mechanism of hypervolemia . J Appl Physiol 1980;;48:657-664.
34 +
Kosunen KJ, Pakarinen AJ, Kuoppasalmi K, et al:  Plasma renin activity, angiotensin II, and aldosterone during intense heat stress . J Appl Physiol 1976;;41:323-327.
35 +
Kosunen KJ, Pakarinen AJ:  Plasma renin, angiotensin II, and plasma and urinary aldosterone in running exercise . J Appl Physiol 1976;; 41:26-29.
36 +
Geyssant A, Geelen G, Denis C, et al:  Plasma vasopressin, renin activity, and aldosterone: effect of exercise and training . Eur J Applied Physiol 1981;;46:21-30.
37 +
Melin B, Eclache JP, Geelen G, et al:  Plasma AVP, neurophysin, renin activity, and aldosterone during submaximal exercise performed until exhaustion in trained and untrained men . Eur J Applied Physiol 1980;;44:141-151.
38 +
Francesconi RP, Sawka MN, Pandolf KB:  Hypohydration and heat acclimation: Plasma renin and aldosterone during exercise . J Appl Physiol 1983;;55:1790-1794.
39 +
Francesconi RP, Sawka MN, Hubbard RW, et al:  Acute albumin-induced plasma volume expansion and exercise in the heat: Effects on hormonal responses in men . Eur J Applied Physiol 1983;;51:121-128.
40 +
Swamy W, Pichan G, Nayar HS:  Effects of body dehydration on soldiers during military operations in heat , in Proceedings: Thirteenth Commonwealth Defence Conference on Operational Clothing and Combat Equipment , 1981;, pp 1-8.
41 +
Hertzman AB, Ferguson ID:  Failure in temperature regulation during progressive dehydration . US Armed Forces Med J 1960;;11:542-560.
42 +
Myhre LG, Robinson S:  Fluid shifts during thermal stress with and without fluid replacement . J Appl Physiol 1977;;42:252-256.
43 +
Horstman DH, Horvath SM:  Cardiovascular and temperature regulatory changes during progressive dehydration and euhydration . J Appl Physiol 1972;;33:446-450.
44 +
Moroff SV, Bass DE:  Effects of overhydration on man's physiological responses to work in the heat . J Appl Physiol 1965;;20:267-270.
45 +
Senay LC:  Relationship of evaporative rates to serum Na+, K+ and osmolarity in acute heat stress . J Appl Physiol 1968;;25:149-152.
46 +
Strydom NB, Wyndham CH, van Graan CH, et al:  The influence of water restriction on the performance of men during a prolonged march . S Afr Med J 1966;;40:539-544.
47 +
Greenleaf JE, Castle BL:  Exercise temperature regulation in man during hypohydration and hyperhydration . J Appl Physiol 1971;;30:847-853.
48 +
Gisolfi CV, Copping JR:  Thermal effects of prolonged treadmill exercise in the heat . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1974;;6:108-113.
49 +
Nielsen B, Hansen G, Jorgensen SO, et al:  Thermoregulation and exercising man during dehydration and hyperhydration with water and saline . Int J Biometeorol 1971;;15:195-200.
50 +
Pearcy M, Robinson S, Miller DI, et al:  Effects of dehydration, salt depletion and pitressin on sweat rate and urine flow . J Appl Physiol 1956;;8:621-626.
51 +
Harrison MH, Edwards RJ, Fennessy PA:  Intravascular volume and tonicity as factors in the regulation of body temperature . J Appl Physiol 1978;;44:69-75.
52 +
Saltin B:  Circulatory response to submaximal and maximal exercise after thermal dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1964;;19:1125-1132.
53 +
Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Critz JB:  Thermal and circulatory responses to repeated bouts of prolonged running . Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979;;11:177-180.
54 +
Rowell LB:  Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress . Physiol Rev 1974;;54:75-159.
55 +
Saltin B:  Aerobic and anaerobic work capacity after dehydration . J Appl Physiol 1964;; 19:1114-1118.
56 +
Craig FN, Cummings EG:  Dehydration and muscular work . J Appl Physiol 1966;;21:670-674.
57 +
Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Glaser RM, et al:  Effect of prolonged running on physiological responses to subsequent exercise . J Hum Ergol 1979;;8:83-90.
58 +
Senay LC, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH:  Acclimation in a hot, humid environment: Body fluid adjustments . J Appl Physiol 1976;;40:786-796.
59 +
Sawka MN, Hubbard RW, Francesconi RP, et al:  Effects of acute plasma volume expansion on altering exercise-heat performance . Eur J Applied Physiol 1983;;51:303-312.

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