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Genetic Memory FREE

Marshall Nirenberg, PhD
[+] Author Affiliations

Presented as a 1968 Albert Lasker Basic Research Award Lecture at the New York University Medical Center. New York, Nov 26, 1968.

Reprint requests to National Heart Institute, Bethesda, Md 20014.


JAMA. 1968;206(9):1973-1977. doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03150090049012
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Published online

Genetic memory resides in specific molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid. The DNA alphabet consists of four letters, the bases, A, T, G, and C. The sequence of letters in a nucleic acid message corresponds to a sequence of the 20 amino acid species in protein. Two molecules of DNA interact with one another by hydrogen bonding between bases on opposite chains. As proposed by Watson and Crick,1 adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine with cytosine. Information is retrieved by transcribing the DNA message in the form of ribonucleic acid and then translating the RNA message into protein. Triplets are translated sequentially, from left to right.

The information encoded in a nucleic acid template enables the reading mechanism to select one from many species of molecules, to define the position of the molecule relative to the previous molecule selected, and to define the approximate time of the event relative to previous

REFERENCES

Watson, J.D., and Crick, F.H.C.:  Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid . Nature 171:737-738 ( (April 25) ) 1953;.
Nirenberg, M.W.. and Matthaei, J.H.:  The Dependence of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E coli Upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic Polyribonucleotides , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 47: 1588-1602 ( (Oct 15) ) 1961;.
Grunberg-Manago, M.; Ortiz, P.J.; and Ochoa, S.:  Enzymic Synthesis of Polynucleotides , Biochim Biophys Acta 20:269-285, 1956;.
Speyer, J.F., et al:  Synthetic Polynucleotides and Amino Acid Code , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:559-567, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W., et al:  On Coding of Genetic Information , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:549-557, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W.; Matthaei, J.H.; and Jones, O.W.:  An Intermediate in the Biosynthesis of Polyphenylalanine Directed by Synthetic Template RNA , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 48:104-109 ( (Jan 15) ) 1962;.
Weisblum, B.; Benzer, S.; and Holley, R.W.:  A Physical Basis for Degeneracy in the Amino Acid Code , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 48:1449-1454 ( (Aug) ) 1962;.
Wittmann, H.G., and Wittmann-Liebold, B.:  Tobacco Mosaic Virus Mutants and the Genetic Coding Problem , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:589-595, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W., and Leder, P.:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: The Effect of Trinucleotides Upon the Binding of sRNA to Ribosomes , Science 145:1399-1407 ( (Sept 25) ) 1964;.
Leder, P.; Singer, M.F.; and Brimacombe, R.L.C.:  Synthesis of Trinucleoside Diphosphates With Polynucleotide Phosphorylase , Biochemistry 4:1561-1567 ( (Aug) ) 1965;.
Thach, R.E., and Doty, P.:  Enzymatic Synthesis of Triand Tetranucleotides of Defined Sequence , Science 148:632-634 ( (April 30) ) 1965;.
Bernfield, M.R.:  Ribonuclease and Oligoribonucleotide Synthesis: I. Synthetic Activity of Bovine Pancreatic Ribonuclease Derivatives , J Biol Chem 240:4753-4762 ( (Dec) ) 1965;.
Bernfield, M.:  Ribonuclease and Oligoribonucleotide Synthesis: II. Synthesis of Oligonucleotides of Specific Sequence , J Biol Chem 241:2014-2023 ( (May 10) ) 1966;.
Heppel, L.A.; Whitfield, P.R.; and Markham, R.: Biochem J 60:8, 1955;.
Nirenberg, M. et al:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: VII. On the General Nature of the RNA Code , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 53:1161-1168 ( (May) ) 1965;.
Söl, D., et al:  Studies on Polynucleotides: XLIX. Stimulation of the Binding of Aminoacyl-sRNA's to Ribosomes by Ribotrinucleotides and a Survey of Codon Assignments for 20 Amino Acids , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 54:1378-1385 ( (Nov) ) 1965;.
Rottman, F., and Nirenberg, M.:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: XI. Template Activity of Modified RNA Codons J Molec Biol 21:555-570 ( (Nov) ) 1966;.
Marcker, K., and Sanger, F.:  N-Formyl-methionyl-S-RNA , J Molec Biol 8:835-840 ( (June) ) 1964;.
Clark, B.F.C., and Marcker, K.A.:  The Role of N-Formyl-methionyl-sRNA in Protein Biosynthesis , J Molec Biol 17:394-406 ( (June) ) 1966;.
Kellogg, D.A., et al:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: IX. Synonym Codon Recognition by Multiple Species of Valine-, Alanine-, and Methionine-SRNA , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 55: 912-919 ( (April) ) 1966;.
Anderson, J.S., et al:  GTP-Stimulated Binding of Initiator-tRNA to Ribosomes Directed by f2 Bacteriophage RNA , Nature 216:1072-1076 ( (Dec 16) ) 1967;.
Nomura, M., and Lowry, C.V.:  Phage F2 RNA-Directed Binding of Formylmethionyl-TRNA to Ribosomes and the Role of 30S Ribosomal Subunits in Initiation of Protein Synthesis , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 58:946-953 ( (Sept) ) 1967;.
Iwasaki, K., et al:  Translation of the Genetic Message: VII. Role of Initiation Factors in Formation of the Chain Initiation Complex With Escherichia coli Ribosomes , Arch Biochem 125:542-547 ( (May) ) 1968;.
Stretton, A.O.W.; Kaplan, S.; and Brenner, S.:  Nonsense Codons , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 31:173-179, 1966;.
Garen, A.:  Sense and Nonsense in Genetic Code , Science 160:149-159 ( (April 12) ) 1968;.
Capecchi, M.R.:  Polypeptide Chain Determination in Vitro: Isolation of a Release Factor , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 58: 1144-1159 ( (Sept) ) 1967;.
Caskey, C.T., et al:  Sequential Translation of Trinucleotide Codons for the Initiation and Termination of Protein Synthesis , Science 162:135-138 ( (Oct 4) ) 1968;.
Scolnick, E., et al:  Release Factors Differing in Specificity for Terminator Codons , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA , to be published.
Bernfield, M.R., and Nirenberg, M.W.:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: The Nucleotide Sequences of Multiple Codewords for Phenylalanine, Serine, Leucine, and Proline , Science 147:479-484 ( (Jan 29) ) 1965;.
Crick, F.H.C.:  Codon-Anticodon Pairing: The Wobble Hypothesis , J Molec Biol 19:548-555 ( (Aug) ) 1966;.
Caskey, C.; Beaudet, A.; and Nirenberg, M.:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: 15. Dissimilar Responses of Mammalian and Bacterial Transfer RNA Fractions to mRNA Codons , J Molec Biol , to be published.

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Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

Watson, J.D., and Crick, F.H.C.:  Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid . Nature 171:737-738 ( (April 25) ) 1953;.
Nirenberg, M.W.. and Matthaei, J.H.:  The Dependence of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E coli Upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic Polyribonucleotides , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 47: 1588-1602 ( (Oct 15) ) 1961;.
Grunberg-Manago, M.; Ortiz, P.J.; and Ochoa, S.:  Enzymic Synthesis of Polynucleotides , Biochim Biophys Acta 20:269-285, 1956;.
Speyer, J.F., et al:  Synthetic Polynucleotides and Amino Acid Code , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:559-567, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W., et al:  On Coding of Genetic Information , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:549-557, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W.; Matthaei, J.H.; and Jones, O.W.:  An Intermediate in the Biosynthesis of Polyphenylalanine Directed by Synthetic Template RNA , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 48:104-109 ( (Jan 15) ) 1962;.
Weisblum, B.; Benzer, S.; and Holley, R.W.:  A Physical Basis for Degeneracy in the Amino Acid Code , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 48:1449-1454 ( (Aug) ) 1962;.
Wittmann, H.G., and Wittmann-Liebold, B.:  Tobacco Mosaic Virus Mutants and the Genetic Coding Problem , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 28:589-595, 1963;.
Nirenberg, M.W., and Leder, P.:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: The Effect of Trinucleotides Upon the Binding of sRNA to Ribosomes , Science 145:1399-1407 ( (Sept 25) ) 1964;.
Leder, P.; Singer, M.F.; and Brimacombe, R.L.C.:  Synthesis of Trinucleoside Diphosphates With Polynucleotide Phosphorylase , Biochemistry 4:1561-1567 ( (Aug) ) 1965;.
Thach, R.E., and Doty, P.:  Enzymatic Synthesis of Triand Tetranucleotides of Defined Sequence , Science 148:632-634 ( (April 30) ) 1965;.
Bernfield, M.R.:  Ribonuclease and Oligoribonucleotide Synthesis: I. Synthetic Activity of Bovine Pancreatic Ribonuclease Derivatives , J Biol Chem 240:4753-4762 ( (Dec) ) 1965;.
Bernfield, M.:  Ribonuclease and Oligoribonucleotide Synthesis: II. Synthesis of Oligonucleotides of Specific Sequence , J Biol Chem 241:2014-2023 ( (May 10) ) 1966;.
Heppel, L.A.; Whitfield, P.R.; and Markham, R.: Biochem J 60:8, 1955;.
Nirenberg, M. et al:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: VII. On the General Nature of the RNA Code , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 53:1161-1168 ( (May) ) 1965;.
Söl, D., et al:  Studies on Polynucleotides: XLIX. Stimulation of the Binding of Aminoacyl-sRNA's to Ribosomes by Ribotrinucleotides and a Survey of Codon Assignments for 20 Amino Acids , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 54:1378-1385 ( (Nov) ) 1965;.
Rottman, F., and Nirenberg, M.:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: XI. Template Activity of Modified RNA Codons J Molec Biol 21:555-570 ( (Nov) ) 1966;.
Marcker, K., and Sanger, F.:  N-Formyl-methionyl-S-RNA , J Molec Biol 8:835-840 ( (June) ) 1964;.
Clark, B.F.C., and Marcker, K.A.:  The Role of N-Formyl-methionyl-sRNA in Protein Biosynthesis , J Molec Biol 17:394-406 ( (June) ) 1966;.
Kellogg, D.A., et al:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: IX. Synonym Codon Recognition by Multiple Species of Valine-, Alanine-, and Methionine-SRNA , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 55: 912-919 ( (April) ) 1966;.
Anderson, J.S., et al:  GTP-Stimulated Binding of Initiator-tRNA to Ribosomes Directed by f2 Bacteriophage RNA , Nature 216:1072-1076 ( (Dec 16) ) 1967;.
Nomura, M., and Lowry, C.V.:  Phage F2 RNA-Directed Binding of Formylmethionyl-TRNA to Ribosomes and the Role of 30S Ribosomal Subunits in Initiation of Protein Synthesis , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 58:946-953 ( (Sept) ) 1967;.
Iwasaki, K., et al:  Translation of the Genetic Message: VII. Role of Initiation Factors in Formation of the Chain Initiation Complex With Escherichia coli Ribosomes , Arch Biochem 125:542-547 ( (May) ) 1968;.
Stretton, A.O.W.; Kaplan, S.; and Brenner, S.:  Nonsense Codons , Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 31:173-179, 1966;.
Garen, A.:  Sense and Nonsense in Genetic Code , Science 160:149-159 ( (April 12) ) 1968;.
Capecchi, M.R.:  Polypeptide Chain Determination in Vitro: Isolation of a Release Factor , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 58: 1144-1159 ( (Sept) ) 1967;.
Caskey, C.T., et al:  Sequential Translation of Trinucleotide Codons for the Initiation and Termination of Protein Synthesis , Science 162:135-138 ( (Oct 4) ) 1968;.
Scolnick, E., et al:  Release Factors Differing in Specificity for Terminator Codons , Proc Nat Acad Sci USA , to be published.
Bernfield, M.R., and Nirenberg, M.W.:  RNA Codewords and Protein Synthesis: The Nucleotide Sequences of Multiple Codewords for Phenylalanine, Serine, Leucine, and Proline , Science 147:479-484 ( (Jan 29) ) 1965;.
Crick, F.H.C.:  Codon-Anticodon Pairing: The Wobble Hypothesis , J Molec Biol 19:548-555 ( (Aug) ) 1966;.
Caskey, C.; Beaudet, A.; and Nirenberg, M.:  RNA Codons and Protein Synthesis: 15. Dissimilar Responses of Mammalian and Bacterial Transfer RNA Fractions to mRNA Codons , J Molec Biol , to be published.
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