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VITAMIN A: Title and subTitle BreakPHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

OTTO A. BESSEY, Ph.D.; S. B. WOLBACH, M.D.
[+] Author Affiliations

BOSTON

From the Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, and Harvard Dental School.


JAMA. 1938;110(25):2072-2080. doi:10.1001/jama.1938.62790250007009
Text Size: A A A
Published online

Vitamin A is an essential part of the biochemical machinery of all vertebrates. It is a derivative of carotenoid pigments from plants. As far as is known, no vertebrate can synthesize carotenoids de novo.1 Probably all higher animals can convert certain carotenoids to vitamin A. The pathologic consequences of the deficiency are similar in man, monkeys, cattle, swine, dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, mice and fowls.2 For these and other reasons, facts about vitamin A learned from animal experiments are without doubt applicable to man.

The required brevity of this article will not permit mention of many papers and excludes critical discussions. The selection and evaluation of the material presented are expressions of our judgment. Readers wishing more references are referred to a monograph by Browning,3 to a review by Robertson4 and to the recent volumes of the Annual Review of Biochemistry.5

PHYSIOLOGY 

Vitamin A 

REFERENCES

Wald, George:  Carotinoids and the Visual Cycle , J. Gen. Physiol. 19: 351 ( (Nov.) ) 1935;.
Wolbach, S. B.:  The Pathologic Changes Resulting from Vitamin Deficiency , J. A. M. A. 108: 7 ( (Jan. 2) ) 1937;.
Browning, E.: The Vitamins , Monograph 1 of the Pickett-Thomson Research Laboratory, London, Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1931;.
Robertson, E. C.:  Recent Work on the Tissue Changes in Vitamin A Deficiency , Am. J. M. Sc. 192: 409 ( (Sept.) ) 1936;.
McCollum, E. V.:  The Fat Soluble Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 5: 379, 1936;.
Sherman, Caroline C., and Sherman, H. C.:  Vitamins , Annual Review of Biochemistry 6:355, 1937;.
Guilbert, H. R., and Hart, G. H.:  Minimum Vitamin A Requirements with Particular Reference to Cattle , J. Nutrition 10: 409 ( (Oct.) ) 1935;.
Karrer, Paul:  Nutritionally Important Natural Pigments , Helvet. chim. acta 19: E33-E48, 1936;.
Palmer, L. S.:  The Chemistry of Vitamin A and Substances Having a Vitamin A Effect , J. A. M. A. 110: 1748 ( (May 21) ) 1938;.
Sherman, H. C., and Smith, S. L.: The Vitamins , American Chemical Society Monograph, New York, Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., 1931;.
Sherman, H. C.: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition , New York, Macmillan Company, 1937;.
Davies, A. W., and Moore, Thomas:  The Influence of the Vitamin A Reserve on the Length of the Depletion Period in the Young Rat , Biochem. J. 31: 172 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
Moore, Thomas:  The Distribution of Vitamin A in the Body of the Rat , Biochem. J. 25: 275 ( (Jan.) ) 1931;.
Davies and Moore.11 Baumann, Riising and Steenbock.21
Ellison, J. B., and Moore, Thomas:  The Vitamin A Reserves of Human Infant and Child in Health and Disease , Biochem. J. 31: 165 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
Dann, W. J., and Moore, Thomas:  The Effect of Vitamin B Deficiency upon the Vitamin A Reserves of the Rat , Biochem. J. 25: 914 ( (March) ) 1931;.
Moore, Thomas:  The Vitamin A Reserve of the Adult Human Being in Health and Disease , Biochem. J. 31: 155 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
McCoord, A. B., and Luce-Clausen, Ethel M.:  The Storage of Vitamin A in the Liver of the Rat , J. Nutrition 7: 557 ( (May) ) 1934;.
Cruickshank, Ethel M., and Moore, Thomas:  The Effect of the Administration of Large Amounts of Vitamin A on the Vitamin A Content of the Hen's Egg , Biochem. J. 31: 179 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;
Guilbert, H. R., and Henshaw, W. R.:  Vitamin A Storage in the Livers of Turkeys and Chickens , J. Nutrition 8: 45 ( (July) ) 1934;.
Sherman and Smith.9 Drummond.34 Harris.93
Dutcher, R. A.; Harris, P. L.; Hartzler, E. R., and Guerrant, N. B.:  The Assimilation of Carotene and Vitamin A in the Presence of Mineral Oils , J. Nutrition 8: 269 ( (Sept.) ) 1934;
Baumann, C. A.; Riising, Blanche M., and Steenbock, Harry:  The Absorption and Storage of Vitamin A in the Rat , J. Biol. Chem. 107: 705 ( (Dec.) ) 1934;.
Clausen, S. W.:  Limits of the Anti-Infective Value of Provitamin A (Carotene) , J. A. M. A. 101: 1384 ( (Oct. 28) ) 1933;.
Davies, A. W., and Moore, Thomas:  The Distribution of Vitamin A in the Organs of the Normal and Hypervitaminotic Rat , Biochem. J. 28: 288 ( (Jan.) ) 1934;.
Boller, R., and Brunner, O.:  Excretion of Vitamin A in Urine , Klin. Wchnschr. 15: 1106 ( (Aug. 1) ) 1936;
Greaves, J. D., and Schmidt, C. L. A.:  On the Absorption and Utilization of Carotene and Vitamin A in Choledochocolonostomized Vitamin A Deficient Rats , Am. J. Physiol. 111:492 ( (April) ) 1935;.
Clausen.22 Heymann.32
Ahmad, Bashir:  The Fate of Carotene After Absorption in the Animal Organism , Biochem. J. 25: 1195 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Greaves and Schmidt, footnotes 25 and 36.
Altschule, M. D.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in Spite of Adequate Diet in Congenital Atresia of Bile Ducts and Jaundice , Arch. Path. 20: 845 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;.
Drummond, J. C.; Bell, M. E., and Palmer, E. T.:  Observations on the Absorption of Carotene and Vitamin A , Brit. M. J. 1: 1208 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Rowntree, J. I.:  The Effect of the Use of Mineral Oil upon the Absorption of Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 3: 345 ( (Jan.) ) 1931;.
Heymann, Walter:  Absorption of Carotene , Am. J. Dis. Child. 51: 273 ( (Feb.) ) 1936;.
Schneider, E., and Widmann, E.:  The Carotene and Vitamin A Content of Human Blood , Klin. Wchnschr. 14: 670 ( (May 11) ) 1935;.
Chesney, Jack, and McCoord, A. B.:  Vitamin A of Serum Following Administration of Haliver Oil in Normal Children and in Chronic Steatorrhea , Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med. 31: 887 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Drummond, J. C.:  The Vitamins , in Textbook of Biochemistry , Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Company, 1935;.
Lasch, Fritz, and Roller, Dietrich:  The Influence of Blocking the Reticulo-Endothelial System on Vitamin A Metabolism of the Liver , Klin. Wchnschr. 15: 1636 ( (Nov. 7) ) 1936;.
Greaves, J. D., and Schmidt, C. L. A.:  The Utilization of Carotene by Jaundiced and Phosphorus Treated Vitamin A Deficient Rats , Am. J. Physiol. 111: 502 ( (April) ) 1935;.
Ralli, Elaine P.; Pariente, A. C.; Brandaleone, Harold, and Davidson, Sidney:  Effect of the Daily Administration of Carotene on the Blood Carotene of Normal and Diabetic Individuals , J. A. M. A. 106: 1975 ( (June 6) ) 1936;.
Capper, N. S.:  The Transformation of Carotene into Vitamin A as Shown by a Study of the Absorption Spectra of Rat Liver Oils , Biochem. J. 24: 980 ( (March) ) 1930;.
Drummond.34 Harris51
Dann, W. J.:  Transmission of Vitamin A from Parents to Young in Mammals , Biochem. J. 28: 2141, 1934;.
Baumann, C. A.; Steenbock, Harry; Beeson, W. M., and Rupel, I. W.:  The Influence of Breed and Diet of Cows on the Carotene and Vitamin A Content of Butter , J. Biol. Chem. 105: 167 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 2:271, 1933;.
Harris.42 Gillam and others.45
Dann, W. J.:  The Vitamin A and Carotinoid Contents of Human Colostrum and Milk , Biochem. J. 30: 1644 ( (Sept.) ) 1936;.
Gillam, E. G.; Heilbron, I. M.; Ferguson, W. S., and Watson, S. J.:  Variations in the Carotene and Vitamin A Values of the Milk Fat (Butter) of Cattle of Typical English Breeds , Biochem. J. 30: 1728 ( (Aug.) ) 1936;.
Russel, W. C., and Taylor, M. W.:  Vitamin A in Egg and Food , Chem. Abstr. 30: 529 ( (Jan.) ) 1936;
 Use of Vitamin A and D by the Hen , J. Nutrition 10: 613 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;
Fridericia, L. S., and Holm, E.:  Influence of Deficiency of Fat-Soluble A Vitamin in the Diet on the Visual Purple in the Eye of the Rat , Am. J. Physiol. 73: 63 ( (June) ) 1925;.
Wald, George:  Vitamin A in Eye Tissues , J. General Physiol. 18: 905 ( (July) ) 1925;
Wald, George, and Clark, Anna-Betty:  Sensory Adaptation and Chemistry of the Retinal Rod , Am. J. Physiol. 116: 157 ( (June) ) 1936;.
Tansley, Katharine:  Factors Affecting the Development and Regeneration of Visual Purple in the Mammalian Retina , Proc. Roy. Soc., London, s.B 114: 79 ( (Nov.) ) 1933;.
Hecht, Selig:  Rods, Cones and the Chemical Basis of Vision , Physiol. Rev. 17: 273 ( (April) ) 1937;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 1:365, 1932;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 4: 355, 1935;.
Gelhorn, Ernst, and Dunn, Joan O.:  The Influence of Lack of Vitamin A in the Diet on the Phagocytosis Promoting Properties of the Blood Serum , J. Nutrition 13: 317 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Jackson, C. M.:  Recent Work on the Effects of Inanition and Malnutrition on Growth and Structure , Arch. Path. 7: 1042 ( (June) ), 8:81 (July), 273 (Aug.) 1929;.
Goldblatt, Harry, and Benischek, Maria:  Vitamin A Deficiency and Metaplasia , J. Exper. Med. 46: 699 ( (Nov.) ) 1927;.
Tyson, M. D., and Smith, A. H.:  Tissue Changes Associated with Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat , Am. J. Path. 5: 57 ( (Jan.) ) 1929;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in the Guinea Pigs , Arch. Path. 5:239 ( (Feb.) ) 1928;.
Mason, K. E., and Wolfe, J. M.:  Relation of Castration to Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat , J. Nutrition 9: 725 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Mason, K. E., and Ellison, E. T.:  The Demonstration of Oestrus in the Vitamin A Deficient Rat by Supravital Study of the Vaginal Smears , J. Nutrition 10: 1 ( (July) ) 1935;
 Changes in the Vaginal Epithelium of the Rat After Vitamin A Deficiency , MasonJ. Nutrition 9: 735 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Tissue Changes Following Deprivation of Fat-Soluble A Vitamin , J. Exper. Med. 42: 753 ( (Dec.) ) 1925;.
Mason, K. E.:  The Specificity of Vitamin E for the Testis: I. Relation Between Vitamins A and E , J. Exper. Zool. 55: 101 ( (Jan.) ) 1930;.
Mason, K. E.:  Foetal Death, Prolonged Gestation, and Difficult Parturition in the Rat as a Result of Vitamin A Deficiency , Am. J. Anat. 57: 303 ( (Sept.) ) 1935;.
Blackfan, K. D., and Wolbach, S. B.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in Infants , J. Pediat. 3: 679 ( (Nov.) ) 1933;.
Blackfan and Wolbach.61 Sweet and K'Ang.73
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  The Incisor Teeth of Albino Rats and Guinea Pigs in Vitamin Deficiency and Repair , Am. J. Path. 9: 275 ( (May) ) 1933;.
Orten, Aline U.; Burn, C. G., and Smith, A. H.:  Effects of Prolonged Chronic Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat with Special Reference to Odontomas , Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med. 36: 82 ( (Feb.) ) 1937;.
Boyle, P. E.:  Manifestations of Vitamin A Deficiency in a Human Tooth , J. Dental Research 13: 39 ( (Feb.) ) 1933;.
Mellanby, May:  The Influence of Diet on the Structure of the Teeth , Physiol. Rev. 8: 545 ( (Oct.) ) 1928;.
Mellanby, May, and King, J. D.:  Diet and the Nerve Supply to the Dental Tissues , Brit. Dent. J. 56: 538 ( (June) ) 1934;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Epithelial Repair in Recovery from Vitamin A Deficiency: An Experimental Study , J. Exper. Med. 57: 511 ( (March) ) 1933;.
Mu, J. W.; Frazier, C. N., and Pillat, A.:  Melanin Pigment of the Skin and Conjunctiva in Avitaminosis A in Man , Chinese J. Physiol. 11: 247 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Frazier, C. N., and Hu, C. K.:  Nature and Distribution According to Age of Cutaneous Manifestations of Vitamin A Deficiency , Arch. Dermat. & Syph. 33: 825 ( (May) ) 1936;.
Pappenheimer, A. M., and Larimore, L. D.:  The Occurrence of Gastric Lesions in Rats: Their Relation to Dietary Deficiency and Hair Ingestion , J. Exper. Med. 40:719 ( (Dec.) ) 1924;.
Sugiura, Kanematsu, and Benedict, S. R.:  A Critical Study of Vitamin A and Carcinogenesis , J. Cancer Research 14: 306 ( (June) ) 1930;.
Sweet, L. K., and K'Ang, H. J.:  Clinical and Anatomic Study of Avitaminosis Among the Chinese , Am. J. Pediat. 50: 699 ( (Sept.) ) 1935;.
Hughes, J. S.; Aubel, C. E., and Lienhardt, H. F.: The Importance of Vitamin A and Vitamin C in the Ration of Swine , Tech. Bull. 23, Kansas State Agricultural Experiment Station, (June) 1928;.
Hughes, J. S.; Lienhardt, H. F., and Aubel, C. E.:  Nerve Degeneration Resulting from Avitaminosis A , J. Nutrition 2: 183 ( (Nov.) ) 1929;.
Mellanby, Edward:  The Experimental Production and Prevention of Degeneration in the Spinal Cord , Brain 54: 247 ( (Sept.) ) 1931;.
Seifried, Oskar: Cited by Robertson.4
Zimmerman, H. M.:  Lesions of the Nervous System in Vitamin Deficiency , J. Exper. Med. 57: 215 ( (Feb.) ) 1933;.
Aberle, S. B. D.:  Neurological Disturbances in Rats Reared on Diets Deficient in Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 7: 445 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Mellanby, Edward:  Xerophthalmia, Trigeminal Degeneration and Vitamin A Deficiency , J. Path. & Bact. 38: 391 ( (May) ) 1934;.
Setterfield, H. E., and Sutton, T. S.:  The Use of Polarized Light in the Study of Myelin Degeneration: The Degeneration of Myelinated Nerves in Avitaminosis A in the White Rat , J. Nutrition 9: 645 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Zimmerman, H. M., and Cowgill, G. R.:  Lesions of the Nervous System in Vitamin Deficiency: The Effect of Carotene in the Treatment of the Nervous Disorder in Rats Fed a Diet Low in Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 11: 411 ( (May) ) 1936;.
Duncan, Donald:  The Marchi Method: A Discussion of Some Sources of Error and the Value of This Method for Studying Primary Changes in the Myelin Sheath , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 25: 327 ( (Feb.) ) 1931;.
Suzman, M. M.; Muller, G. L., and Ungley, C. C.:  An Attempt to Produce Spinal Cord Degeneration in Dogs Fed a High Cereal Diet Deficient in Vitamin A: The Incidental Development of a Syndrome of Anemia, Skin Lesions, Anorexia and Changes in the Concentration of Blood Lipoids , Am. J. Physiol. 101: 529 ( (Aug.) ) 1932;.
Grinker, R. R., and Kandel, Ernestine:  Experimental Vitamin (A, B, B2 and B Complex) Deficiency: Histologic Changes in the Central Nervous System , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 30:1287 ( (Dec.) ) 1933;.
Radhakrishna Rao, M. V.:  Studies on Vitamin A Deficiency: I. Xerophthalmia and Trigeminal Nerve Degeneration , Indian J. M. Research 29: 439 ( (Oct.) ) 1936;.
Eveleth, D. F., and Biester, H. E.:  The Significance of Myelin Sheath Degeneration and Its Relation to Incoordination , Am. J. Path. 13: 257 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Swank, R. L., and Davenport, H. A.:  Marchi's Staining Method: Studies of Some of the Underlying Mechanisms Involved , Stain Technology 9: 11 ( (Feb.) ) 1934;.
Wolbach and Howe, footnotes 56 and 58. Blackfan and Wolbach.61
Goettsch, Marianne, and Pappenheimer, A. M.:  Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy in the Guinea Pig and Rabbit , J. Exper. Med. 54: 145 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Rogers, W. M.; Pappenheimer, A. M., and Goettsch, Marianne:  Nerve Endings in Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy in Guinea Pigs , J. Exper. Med. 54: 167 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Hale, Fred:  The Relation of Vitamin A to Anophthalmos in Pigs , Am. J. Ophth. 18: 1087 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 3:275, 1934;.

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Wald, George:  Carotinoids and the Visual Cycle , J. Gen. Physiol. 19: 351 ( (Nov.) ) 1935;.
Wolbach, S. B.:  The Pathologic Changes Resulting from Vitamin Deficiency , J. A. M. A. 108: 7 ( (Jan. 2) ) 1937;.
Browning, E.: The Vitamins , Monograph 1 of the Pickett-Thomson Research Laboratory, London, Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1931;.
Robertson, E. C.:  Recent Work on the Tissue Changes in Vitamin A Deficiency , Am. J. M. Sc. 192: 409 ( (Sept.) ) 1936;.
McCollum, E. V.:  The Fat Soluble Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 5: 379, 1936;.
Sherman, Caroline C., and Sherman, H. C.:  Vitamins , Annual Review of Biochemistry 6:355, 1937;.
Guilbert, H. R., and Hart, G. H.:  Minimum Vitamin A Requirements with Particular Reference to Cattle , J. Nutrition 10: 409 ( (Oct.) ) 1935;.
Karrer, Paul:  Nutritionally Important Natural Pigments , Helvet. chim. acta 19: E33-E48, 1936;.
Palmer, L. S.:  The Chemistry of Vitamin A and Substances Having a Vitamin A Effect , J. A. M. A. 110: 1748 ( (May 21) ) 1938;.
Sherman, H. C., and Smith, S. L.: The Vitamins , American Chemical Society Monograph, New York, Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., 1931;.
Sherman, H. C.: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition , New York, Macmillan Company, 1937;.
Davies, A. W., and Moore, Thomas:  The Influence of the Vitamin A Reserve on the Length of the Depletion Period in the Young Rat , Biochem. J. 31: 172 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
Moore, Thomas:  The Distribution of Vitamin A in the Body of the Rat , Biochem. J. 25: 275 ( (Jan.) ) 1931;.
Davies and Moore.11 Baumann, Riising and Steenbock.21
Ellison, J. B., and Moore, Thomas:  The Vitamin A Reserves of Human Infant and Child in Health and Disease , Biochem. J. 31: 165 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
Dann, W. J., and Moore, Thomas:  The Effect of Vitamin B Deficiency upon the Vitamin A Reserves of the Rat , Biochem. J. 25: 914 ( (March) ) 1931;.
Moore, Thomas:  The Vitamin A Reserve of the Adult Human Being in Health and Disease , Biochem. J. 31: 155 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;.
McCoord, A. B., and Luce-Clausen, Ethel M.:  The Storage of Vitamin A in the Liver of the Rat , J. Nutrition 7: 557 ( (May) ) 1934;.
Cruickshank, Ethel M., and Moore, Thomas:  The Effect of the Administration of Large Amounts of Vitamin A on the Vitamin A Content of the Hen's Egg , Biochem. J. 31: 179 ( (Jan.) ) 1937;
Guilbert, H. R., and Henshaw, W. R.:  Vitamin A Storage in the Livers of Turkeys and Chickens , J. Nutrition 8: 45 ( (July) ) 1934;.
Sherman and Smith.9 Drummond.34 Harris.93
Dutcher, R. A.; Harris, P. L.; Hartzler, E. R., and Guerrant, N. B.:  The Assimilation of Carotene and Vitamin A in the Presence of Mineral Oils , J. Nutrition 8: 269 ( (Sept.) ) 1934;
Baumann, C. A.; Riising, Blanche M., and Steenbock, Harry:  The Absorption and Storage of Vitamin A in the Rat , J. Biol. Chem. 107: 705 ( (Dec.) ) 1934;.
Clausen, S. W.:  Limits of the Anti-Infective Value of Provitamin A (Carotene) , J. A. M. A. 101: 1384 ( (Oct. 28) ) 1933;.
Davies, A. W., and Moore, Thomas:  The Distribution of Vitamin A in the Organs of the Normal and Hypervitaminotic Rat , Biochem. J. 28: 288 ( (Jan.) ) 1934;.
Boller, R., and Brunner, O.:  Excretion of Vitamin A in Urine , Klin. Wchnschr. 15: 1106 ( (Aug. 1) ) 1936;
Greaves, J. D., and Schmidt, C. L. A.:  On the Absorption and Utilization of Carotene and Vitamin A in Choledochocolonostomized Vitamin A Deficient Rats , Am. J. Physiol. 111:492 ( (April) ) 1935;.
Clausen.22 Heymann.32
Ahmad, Bashir:  The Fate of Carotene After Absorption in the Animal Organism , Biochem. J. 25: 1195 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Greaves and Schmidt, footnotes 25 and 36.
Altschule, M. D.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in Spite of Adequate Diet in Congenital Atresia of Bile Ducts and Jaundice , Arch. Path. 20: 845 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;.
Drummond, J. C.; Bell, M. E., and Palmer, E. T.:  Observations on the Absorption of Carotene and Vitamin A , Brit. M. J. 1: 1208 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Rowntree, J. I.:  The Effect of the Use of Mineral Oil upon the Absorption of Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 3: 345 ( (Jan.) ) 1931;.
Heymann, Walter:  Absorption of Carotene , Am. J. Dis. Child. 51: 273 ( (Feb.) ) 1936;.
Schneider, E., and Widmann, E.:  The Carotene and Vitamin A Content of Human Blood , Klin. Wchnschr. 14: 670 ( (May 11) ) 1935;.
Chesney, Jack, and McCoord, A. B.:  Vitamin A of Serum Following Administration of Haliver Oil in Normal Children and in Chronic Steatorrhea , Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med. 31: 887 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Drummond, J. C.:  The Vitamins , in Textbook of Biochemistry , Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Company, 1935;.
Lasch, Fritz, and Roller, Dietrich:  The Influence of Blocking the Reticulo-Endothelial System on Vitamin A Metabolism of the Liver , Klin. Wchnschr. 15: 1636 ( (Nov. 7) ) 1936;.
Greaves, J. D., and Schmidt, C. L. A.:  The Utilization of Carotene by Jaundiced and Phosphorus Treated Vitamin A Deficient Rats , Am. J. Physiol. 111: 502 ( (April) ) 1935;.
Ralli, Elaine P.; Pariente, A. C.; Brandaleone, Harold, and Davidson, Sidney:  Effect of the Daily Administration of Carotene on the Blood Carotene of Normal and Diabetic Individuals , J. A. M. A. 106: 1975 ( (June 6) ) 1936;.
Capper, N. S.:  The Transformation of Carotene into Vitamin A as Shown by a Study of the Absorption Spectra of Rat Liver Oils , Biochem. J. 24: 980 ( (March) ) 1930;.
Drummond.34 Harris51
Dann, W. J.:  Transmission of Vitamin A from Parents to Young in Mammals , Biochem. J. 28: 2141, 1934;.
Baumann, C. A.; Steenbock, Harry; Beeson, W. M., and Rupel, I. W.:  The Influence of Breed and Diet of Cows on the Carotene and Vitamin A Content of Butter , J. Biol. Chem. 105: 167 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 2:271, 1933;.
Harris.42 Gillam and others.45
Dann, W. J.:  The Vitamin A and Carotinoid Contents of Human Colostrum and Milk , Biochem. J. 30: 1644 ( (Sept.) ) 1936;.
Gillam, E. G.; Heilbron, I. M.; Ferguson, W. S., and Watson, S. J.:  Variations in the Carotene and Vitamin A Values of the Milk Fat (Butter) of Cattle of Typical English Breeds , Biochem. J. 30: 1728 ( (Aug.) ) 1936;.
Russel, W. C., and Taylor, M. W.:  Vitamin A in Egg and Food , Chem. Abstr. 30: 529 ( (Jan.) ) 1936;
 Use of Vitamin A and D by the Hen , J. Nutrition 10: 613 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;
Fridericia, L. S., and Holm, E.:  Influence of Deficiency of Fat-Soluble A Vitamin in the Diet on the Visual Purple in the Eye of the Rat , Am. J. Physiol. 73: 63 ( (June) ) 1925;.
Wald, George:  Vitamin A in Eye Tissues , J. General Physiol. 18: 905 ( (July) ) 1925;
Wald, George, and Clark, Anna-Betty:  Sensory Adaptation and Chemistry of the Retinal Rod , Am. J. Physiol. 116: 157 ( (June) ) 1936;.
Tansley, Katharine:  Factors Affecting the Development and Regeneration of Visual Purple in the Mammalian Retina , Proc. Roy. Soc., London, s.B 114: 79 ( (Nov.) ) 1933;.
Hecht, Selig:  Rods, Cones and the Chemical Basis of Vision , Physiol. Rev. 17: 273 ( (April) ) 1937;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 1:365, 1932;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 4: 355, 1935;.
Gelhorn, Ernst, and Dunn, Joan O.:  The Influence of Lack of Vitamin A in the Diet on the Phagocytosis Promoting Properties of the Blood Serum , J. Nutrition 13: 317 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Jackson, C. M.:  Recent Work on the Effects of Inanition and Malnutrition on Growth and Structure , Arch. Path. 7: 1042 ( (June) ), 8:81 (July), 273 (Aug.) 1929;.
Goldblatt, Harry, and Benischek, Maria:  Vitamin A Deficiency and Metaplasia , J. Exper. Med. 46: 699 ( (Nov.) ) 1927;.
Tyson, M. D., and Smith, A. H.:  Tissue Changes Associated with Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat , Am. J. Path. 5: 57 ( (Jan.) ) 1929;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in the Guinea Pigs , Arch. Path. 5:239 ( (Feb.) ) 1928;.
Mason, K. E., and Wolfe, J. M.:  Relation of Castration to Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat , J. Nutrition 9: 725 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Mason, K. E., and Ellison, E. T.:  The Demonstration of Oestrus in the Vitamin A Deficient Rat by Supravital Study of the Vaginal Smears , J. Nutrition 10: 1 ( (July) ) 1935;
 Changes in the Vaginal Epithelium of the Rat After Vitamin A Deficiency , MasonJ. Nutrition 9: 735 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Tissue Changes Following Deprivation of Fat-Soluble A Vitamin , J. Exper. Med. 42: 753 ( (Dec.) ) 1925;.
Mason, K. E.:  The Specificity of Vitamin E for the Testis: I. Relation Between Vitamins A and E , J. Exper. Zool. 55: 101 ( (Jan.) ) 1930;.
Mason, K. E.:  Foetal Death, Prolonged Gestation, and Difficult Parturition in the Rat as a Result of Vitamin A Deficiency , Am. J. Anat. 57: 303 ( (Sept.) ) 1935;.
Blackfan, K. D., and Wolbach, S. B.:  Vitamin A Deficiency in Infants , J. Pediat. 3: 679 ( (Nov.) ) 1933;.
Blackfan and Wolbach.61 Sweet and K'Ang.73
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  The Incisor Teeth of Albino Rats and Guinea Pigs in Vitamin Deficiency and Repair , Am. J. Path. 9: 275 ( (May) ) 1933;.
Orten, Aline U.; Burn, C. G., and Smith, A. H.:  Effects of Prolonged Chronic Vitamin A Deficiency in the Rat with Special Reference to Odontomas , Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. & Med. 36: 82 ( (Feb.) ) 1937;.
Boyle, P. E.:  Manifestations of Vitamin A Deficiency in a Human Tooth , J. Dental Research 13: 39 ( (Feb.) ) 1933;.
Mellanby, May:  The Influence of Diet on the Structure of the Teeth , Physiol. Rev. 8: 545 ( (Oct.) ) 1928;.
Mellanby, May, and King, J. D.:  Diet and the Nerve Supply to the Dental Tissues , Brit. Dent. J. 56: 538 ( (June) ) 1934;.
Wolbach, S. B., and Howe, P. R.:  Epithelial Repair in Recovery from Vitamin A Deficiency: An Experimental Study , J. Exper. Med. 57: 511 ( (March) ) 1933;.
Mu, J. W.; Frazier, C. N., and Pillat, A.:  Melanin Pigment of the Skin and Conjunctiva in Avitaminosis A in Man , Chinese J. Physiol. 11: 247 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Frazier, C. N., and Hu, C. K.:  Nature and Distribution According to Age of Cutaneous Manifestations of Vitamin A Deficiency , Arch. Dermat. & Syph. 33: 825 ( (May) ) 1936;.
Pappenheimer, A. M., and Larimore, L. D.:  The Occurrence of Gastric Lesions in Rats: Their Relation to Dietary Deficiency and Hair Ingestion , J. Exper. Med. 40:719 ( (Dec.) ) 1924;.
Sugiura, Kanematsu, and Benedict, S. R.:  A Critical Study of Vitamin A and Carcinogenesis , J. Cancer Research 14: 306 ( (June) ) 1930;.
Sweet, L. K., and K'Ang, H. J.:  Clinical and Anatomic Study of Avitaminosis Among the Chinese , Am. J. Pediat. 50: 699 ( (Sept.) ) 1935;.
Hughes, J. S.; Aubel, C. E., and Lienhardt, H. F.: The Importance of Vitamin A and Vitamin C in the Ration of Swine , Tech. Bull. 23, Kansas State Agricultural Experiment Station, (June) 1928;.
Hughes, J. S.; Lienhardt, H. F., and Aubel, C. E.:  Nerve Degeneration Resulting from Avitaminosis A , J. Nutrition 2: 183 ( (Nov.) ) 1929;.
Mellanby, Edward:  The Experimental Production and Prevention of Degeneration in the Spinal Cord , Brain 54: 247 ( (Sept.) ) 1931;.
Seifried, Oskar: Cited by Robertson.4
Zimmerman, H. M.:  Lesions of the Nervous System in Vitamin Deficiency , J. Exper. Med. 57: 215 ( (Feb.) ) 1933;.
Aberle, S. B. D.:  Neurological Disturbances in Rats Reared on Diets Deficient in Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 7: 445 ( (April) ) 1934;.
Mellanby, Edward:  Xerophthalmia, Trigeminal Degeneration and Vitamin A Deficiency , J. Path. & Bact. 38: 391 ( (May) ) 1934;.
Setterfield, H. E., and Sutton, T. S.:  The Use of Polarized Light in the Study of Myelin Degeneration: The Degeneration of Myelinated Nerves in Avitaminosis A in the White Rat , J. Nutrition 9: 645 ( (June) ) 1935;.
Zimmerman, H. M., and Cowgill, G. R.:  Lesions of the Nervous System in Vitamin Deficiency: The Effect of Carotene in the Treatment of the Nervous Disorder in Rats Fed a Diet Low in Vitamin A , J. Nutrition 11: 411 ( (May) ) 1936;.
Duncan, Donald:  The Marchi Method: A Discussion of Some Sources of Error and the Value of This Method for Studying Primary Changes in the Myelin Sheath , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 25: 327 ( (Feb.) ) 1931;.
Suzman, M. M.; Muller, G. L., and Ungley, C. C.:  An Attempt to Produce Spinal Cord Degeneration in Dogs Fed a High Cereal Diet Deficient in Vitamin A: The Incidental Development of a Syndrome of Anemia, Skin Lesions, Anorexia and Changes in the Concentration of Blood Lipoids , Am. J. Physiol. 101: 529 ( (Aug.) ) 1932;.
Grinker, R. R., and Kandel, Ernestine:  Experimental Vitamin (A, B, B2 and B Complex) Deficiency: Histologic Changes in the Central Nervous System , Arch. Neurol. & Psychiat. 30:1287 ( (Dec.) ) 1933;.
Radhakrishna Rao, M. V.:  Studies on Vitamin A Deficiency: I. Xerophthalmia and Trigeminal Nerve Degeneration , Indian J. M. Research 29: 439 ( (Oct.) ) 1936;.
Eveleth, D. F., and Biester, H. E.:  The Significance of Myelin Sheath Degeneration and Its Relation to Incoordination , Am. J. Path. 13: 257 ( (March) ) 1937;.
Swank, R. L., and Davenport, H. A.:  Marchi's Staining Method: Studies of Some of the Underlying Mechanisms Involved , Stain Technology 9: 11 ( (Feb.) ) 1934;.
Wolbach and Howe, footnotes 56 and 58. Blackfan and Wolbach.61
Goettsch, Marianne, and Pappenheimer, A. M.:  Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy in the Guinea Pig and Rabbit , J. Exper. Med. 54: 145 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Rogers, W. M.; Pappenheimer, A. M., and Goettsch, Marianne:  Nerve Endings in Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy in Guinea Pigs , J. Exper. Med. 54: 167 ( (Aug.) ) 1931;.
Hale, Fred:  The Relation of Vitamin A to Anophthalmos in Pigs , Am. J. Ophth. 18: 1087 ( (Dec.) ) 1935;.
Harris, L. J.:  Vitamins , in Annual Review of Biochemistry , Stanford University, Calif., Stanford University Press 3:275, 1934;.
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To understand the clinical management of acute heart failure syndromes.
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